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AFL great's son in induced coma after mystery brain infection

Geelong great Peter Riccardi has revealed his son, Osca, was briefly put on life support after suffering a mystery infection on the brain. Speaking on the podcast Beyond The Boundary, the former AFL player revealed that his son became suddenly ill a fortnight ago. “A couple of Sundays ago (Osca) came home, been out with a few of his mates, he’d been to the beach, went out for dinner, went out to play 10-pin bowling ... and said he was going to bed,” Peter Riccardi said. “Then halfway through the night he was up, he was vomiting, he was feeling a bit crook ... we just thought he was run down. “But come lunchtime, he couldn’t talk, he could hardly walk.” He added that they were extremely lucky his wife Mel worked from home that day and rushed Osca straight to hospital, where they found some "swelling" on his brain following a scan. Doctors also found that he had a sinus and ear infection and glandular fever all “rolled into one”. “Whether the swim did something with his ears and went into his brain, I’m not 100 per cent sure, yet,” Riccardi said. “They put him an induced coma for three days. He was in ICU (Intensive Care Unit) for four days. “But he’s back home now recovering ... you wouldn’t know that two weeks ago, watching him on life support, and seeing him now, it’s amazing what they do in there.” The podcast hosts then asked how scary the situation was for Riccardi and his wife, and he responded: “It was, yeah ... obviously they have got to prepare you for the worst (outcome)." “That was probably the worst thing to hear, because we didn’t know how he was going to come out of it. “But again, like I said, if Mel had gone to work that day, he wouldn’t be here today. “We’re pretty lucky, we’re pretty lucky. “It must have been a mother’s intuition or mother’s instinct to stay at home that day.” Image: Facebook/ Geelong Cats

Caring

Eye infections might seem like a minor complaint – but in some cases they can cause blindness and even death

<div class="theconversation-article-body"><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/adam-taylor-283950">Adam Taylor</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/lancaster-university-1176">Lancaster University</a> When you think of eye infections, what comes to mind? Puffy, swollen bruised feeling eyelids that get glued together with gunk overnight? That feeling of having grit in your eye that can’t be cleaned away? Eye infections may seem like a relatively minor – if unsightly and inconvenient – complaint, but they can also be far more serious. Take the deadly outbreak of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5022785/">antibiotic resistant</a> bacteria <a href="https://www.cff.org/managing-cf/burkholderia-cepacia-complex-b-cepacia">Burkholderia cepacia</a> in 2023-24, for example. Between January 2023 and February 2024, contaminated brands of lubricating eye gel were linked to the infection of at least 52 patients. <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/health/contaminated-eye-gel-outbreak-death-b2523446.html">One person died</a> and at least 25 others suffered serious infections. The outbreak has now subsided and products are <a href="https://www.gov.uk/drug-device-alerts/specific-brands-of-carbomer-eye-gel-recall-of-aacarb-eye-gel-aacomer-eye-gel-and-puroptics-eye-gel-potential-risk-of-infection-dsi-slash-2023-slash-11#update-2-april-2024">back on the shelves</a> but it isn’t the first time that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8335909/">medicinal products</a> have led to outbreaks of B cepacia. The bacterium is an opportunistic pathogen known to pose a significant risk to people with cystic fibrosis, chronic lung conditions and weakened immune systems. The infection likely progresses from the mucous membranes of the eyelids to the lungs where it leads to pneumonia and septicaemia causing <a href="https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/17/2/295">death in days</a>. But it’s not just B cepacia that can threaten our health. Something as simple as rubbing our eyes can introduce pathogens leading to infection, blindness and, in the worst case, death. Bacteria account for up to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16148850/">70% of eye infections</a> and globally <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9032492/">over 6 million people</a> have blindness or moderate visual impairment from ocular infection. Contact lens wearers are at <a href="https://www.aao.org/eye-health/diseases/contact-lens-related-eye-infections">increased risk</a>. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/pWsx8i1kaxs?wmode=transparent&start=0" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe></figure> The eye is a unique structure. It converts light energy to chemical and then electrical energy, which is transmitted to the brain and converted to a picture. The eye uses about <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11556/">6 million cones and 120 million rods</a> which detect colour and light. Eye cells have <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8775779/">no ability to regenerate</a> so, once damaged or injured, cannot be repaired or replaced. The body tries its best to preserve the eyes by encasing them in a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK531490/">bony protective frame</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482428/">limiting exposure</a> having eyelids to defend against the environmental damage and ensure the eyes are kept lubricated. Despite our bodies’ best efforts to shield the eyes from harm, there are a number of common eye infections that can result from introducing potential pathogens into the eyes. <h2>Conjunctivitis</h2> The outer-most layer of the eye, the sclera, bears the brunt of exposure and to help protect it, it is lined by a thin moist membrane called the <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/24329-conjunctiva">conjunctiva</a>. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/RZ4danuJwd0?wmode=transparent&start=0" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe></figure> The conjunctiva is <a href="https://innovations.bmj.com/content/9/4/253">highly vascularised</a>, which means it has lots of blood vessels. When microbes enter the eye, it is this layer that mounts an immune response causing <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8328962/">blood vessels to dilate</a> in the conjunctiva. This results in <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/conjunctivitis/about/symptoms.html">“pink eye”</a>, a common form of conjunctivitis. Conjunctivitis can be caused by bacteria, allergens or viruses and typically heals by itself. <h2>Blepharitis</h2> Blepharitis is an inflammation of the eyelid and usually affects both sides. It can cause itchy eyes and dandruff-like flakes. It’s most commonly caused by <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.3109/09273948.2013.870214">Staphylococcus bacteria</a>, or the <a href="https://cks.nice.org.uk/topics/blepharitis/background-information/causes/">dysfunction of the glands</a> of the eyelids. It can be treated by <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/blepharitis/">cleaning the eyes</a> regularly. <h2>Stye</h2> A stye (also called <a href="https://www.college-optometrists.org/clinical-guidance/clinical-management-guidelines/hordeolum">hordeolum</a>) is a painful infection of the upper or lower eyelid. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5370090/">Internal styes</a> are caused by infection of an oil-producing gland inside the eyelid, whereas <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28723014/">external styes</a> develop at the base of the eyelash because of an infection of the hair follicle. Both are caused by bacteria, typically <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaophthalmology/fullarticle/1874715">the S aureus form of the Staphylococcus species</a>. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/INKrGOdy824?wmode=transparent&start=0" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe></figure> Styes can be treated by holding a clean flannel soaked in warm water against the affected eye for five to ten minutes, three or four times a day. Do not try to burst styes – this could spread the infection. <h2>Keratitis</h2> Keratitis is the inflammation of the cornea, the transparent part of the eye that light passes through. The cornea is part of the eye’s main barrier against dirt, germs, and disease. Severe keratitis can cause ulcers, damage to the eye and even blindness. The most common type is bacterial keratitis; however, it can also be caused by <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7998329/">amoeba</a>, which can migrate to other parts of the body – including the brain – and cause infection and <a href="https://theconversation.com/nasal-rinsing-why-flushing-the-nasal-passages-with-tap-water-to-tackle-hay-fever-could-be-fatal-225811">even death</a>. Noninfectious keratitis is most commonly caused by wearing contact lenses for too long, especially while sleeping. This can cause scratches, dryness and soreness of the cornea, which leads to inflammation. <h2>Uveitis</h2> <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/uveitis/">Uveitis</a> is inflammation of the middle layer of the eye. Although relatively rare, it is a serious condition and usually results from viral infections such as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8501150/">herpes simplex</a>, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29023181/">herpes zoster</a> or <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-09126-6_40">trauma</a>. Depending on where the inflammation is in the eye, the symptoms can be anything from redness, pain and floaters to blurred vision and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1772296/">partial blindness</a>. <h2>Exogenous endophthalmitis</h2> This is a rare but serious infection caused by eye surgery complications, penetrating ocular trauma (being stabbed in the eye with a sharp object) or foreign bodies in the eye. Foreign bodies can be anything from dirt and dust to small projectiles such as shards of metal from drilling, explosives or soil from farm machinery and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7286045/">many other sources</a>. <h2>Dacryocystitis</h2> Dacryocystitis is the inflammation of the nasolacrimal sac, which drains tears away from the eye into the nose. This condition can be <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8443113/">acute</a>, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/6700662">chronic</a> or <a href="https://www.jebmh.com/articles/a-study-of-congenital-dacryocystitis.pdf.pdf">acquired at birth</a>. Most cases are caused by <a href="https://bmcophthalmol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12886-020-01792-4">Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus</a> bacteria. The condition mainly affects newborns and those over 40. Seventy-five per cent of cases are women and it’s most commonly found in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6039673/">white adults</a>. It can lead to the stagnation of tears, creating a breeding ground for microbes. <h2>Careful with contacts</h2> Proper eye hygiene reduces the risk of all these conditions – and this is even more important for contact lens wearers. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/uENHAntJOIA?wmode=transparent&start=0" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe></figure> Appropriate hygienic cleaning of lenses is paramount. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30789440/">Non-sterile water</a>, <a href="https://www.aao.org/eye-health/glasses-contacts/contact-lens-care">spit</a> and other fluids can transfer <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/bacteria-living-your-contact-lens-solution">potentially dangerous</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3482476/">microbes</a> into the eye – a warm, moist environment that makes an ideal breeding ground for bacteria – leading to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9542356/">localised infection</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3972779/">blindness</a> or progress to a more serious <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9835757/">systemic infection or death</a>. Any persistent and painful redness or swelling of eyes should be checked by a registered health professional.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/227252/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/adam-taylor-283950">Adam Taylor</a>, Professor and Director of the Clinical Anatomy Learning Centre, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/lancaster-university-1176">Lancaster University</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/eye-infections-might-seem-like-a-minor-complaint-but-in-some-cases-they-can-cause-blindness-and-even-death-227252">original article</a>. </div>

Body

Why do I keep getting urinary tract infections? And why are chronic UTIs so hard to treat?

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/iris-lim-1204657">Iris Lim</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/bond-university-863">Bond University</a> Dealing with chronic urinary tract infections (UTIs) means facing more than the occasional discomfort. It’s like being on a never ending battlefield against an unseen adversary, making simple daily activities a trial. UTIs happen when bacteria sneak into the urinary system, causing pain and frequent trips to the bathroom. Chronic UTIs take this to the next level, coming back repeatedly or never fully going away despite treatment. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557479/">Chronic UTIs</a> are typically diagnosed when a person experiences two or more infections within six months or three or more within a year. They can happen to anyone, but some are more prone due to their <a href="https://www.urologyhealth.org/urology-a-z/u/urinary-tract-infections-in-adults">body’s makeup or habits</a>. Women are more likely to get UTIs than men, due to their shorter urethra and hormonal changes during menopause that can decrease the protective lining of the urinary tract. Sexually active people are also at greater risk, as bacteria can be transferred around the area. Up to <a href="https://www.urologyhealth.org/urology-a-z/u/urinary-tract-infections-in-adults#Related%20Resources">60% of women</a> will have at least one UTI in their lifetime. While effective treatments exist, <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/bladder-and-bowel/when-urinary-tract-infections-keep-coming-back#:%7E:text=Your%20urine%20might%20be%20cloudy,they%20take%20on%20your%20life.">about 25%</a> of women face recurrent infections within six months. Around <a href="https://sciendo.com/article/10.33073/pjm-2019-048?tab=article">20–30%</a> of UTIs don’t respond to standard antibiotic. The challenge of chronic UTIs lies in bacteria’s ability to shield themselves against treatments. <h2>Why are chronic UTIs so hard to treat?</h2> Once thought of as straightforward infections cured by antibiotics, we now know chronic UTIs are complex. The cunning nature of the bacteria responsible for the condition allows them to hide in bladder walls, out of antibiotics’ reach. The bacteria form biofilms, a kind of protective barrier that makes them nearly impervious to standard antibiotic treatments. This ability to evade treatment has led to a troubling <a href="https://theconversation.com/rising-antibiotic-resistance-in-utis-could-cost-australia-1-6-billion-a-year-by-2030-heres-how-to-curb-it-149543">increase in antibiotic resistance</a>, a global health concern that renders some of the conventional treatments ineffective. Antibiotics need to be advanced to keep up with evolving bacteria, in a similar way to the flu vaccine, which is updated annually to combat the latest strains of the flu virus. If we used the same flu vaccine year after year, its effectiveness would wane, just as overused antibiotics lose their power against bacteria that have adapted. But fighting bacteria that resist antibiotics is much tougher than updating the flu vaccine. Bacteria change in ways that are harder to predict, making it more challenging to create new, effective antibiotics. It’s like a never-ending game where the bacteria are always one step ahead. Treating chronic UTIs still relies heavily on antibiotics, but doctors are getting crafty, changing up medications or prescribing low doses over a longer time to outwit the bacteria. Doctors are also placing a greater emphasis on thorough diagnostics to accurately identify chronic UTIs from the outset. By asking detailed questions about the duration and frequency of symptoms, health-care providers can better distinguish between isolated UTI episodes and chronic conditions. The approach to initial treatment can significantly influence the likelihood of a UTI becoming chronic. Early, targeted therapy, based on the specific bacteria causing the infection and its antibiotic sensitivity, may reduce the risk of recurrence. For post-menopausal women, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00192-020-04397-z">estrogen therapy</a> has shown promise in reducing the risk of recurrent UTIs. After menopause, the decrease in estrogen levels can lead to changes in the urinary tract that makes it more susceptible to infections. This treatment restores the balance of the vaginal and urinary tract environments, making it less likely for UTIs to occur. Lifestyle changes, such as <a href="https://journals.lww.com/co-nephrolhypertens/FullText/2013/05001/Impact_of_fluid_intake_in_the_prevention_of.1.aspx">drinking more water</a> and practising good hygiene like washing hands with soap after going to the toilet and the recommended front-to-back wiping for women, also play a big role. Some swear by cranberry juice or supplements, though researchers are still figuring out <a href="https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001322.pub2/full">how effective these remedies truly are</a>. <h2>What treatments might we see in the future?</h2> Scientists are currently working on new treatments for chronic UTIs. One promising avenue is the development of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10052183/pdf/pathogens-12-00359.pdf">vaccines</a> aimed at preventing UTIs altogether, much like flu shots prepare our immune system to fend off the flu. Another new method being looked at is called <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12223-019-00750-y">phage therapy</a>. It uses special viruses called bacteriophages that go after and kill only the bad bacteria causing UTIs, while leaving the good bacteria in our body alone. This way, it doesn’t make the bacteria resistant to treatment, which is a big plus. Researchers are also exploring the potential of <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6382/12/1/167">probiotics</a>. Probiotics introduce beneficial bacteria into the urinary tract to out-compete harmful pathogens. These good bacteria work by occupying space and resources in the urinary tract, making it harder for harmful pathogens to establish themselves. Probiotics can also produce substances that inhibit the growth of harmful bacteria and enhance the body’s immune response. Chronic UTIs represent a stubborn challenge, but with a mix of current treatments and promising research, we’re getting closer to a day when chronic UTIs are a thing of the past.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223008/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/iris-lim-1204657">Iris Lim</a>, Assistant Professor, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/bond-university-863">Bond University</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-i-keep-getting-urinary-tract-infections-and-why-are-chronic-utis-so-hard-to-treat-223008">original article</a>.

Body

How long does immunity last after a COVID infection?

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/lara-herrero-1166059">Lara Herrero</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/griffith-university-828">Griffith University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/dr-wesley-freppel-1408971">Dr Wesley Freppel</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/griffith-university-828">Griffith University</a> Nearly four years into the pandemic, Australia, like many other countries, is still seeing large numbers of <a href="https://nindss.health.gov.au/pbi-dashboard/">COVID cases</a>. Some 860,221 infections were recorded around the country in 2023, while 30,283 cases have already been reported in 2024. This is likely to be a significant underestimate, with fewer people testing and reporting than earlier in the pandemic. But the signs suggest parts of Australia are experiencing yet <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-01-23/covid-19-case-numbers-from-australia-states-and-territories/103374656">another COVID surge</a>. While some lucky people claim to have never had COVID, many are facing our second, third or even fourth infection, often despite having been vaccinated. You might be wondering, how long does immunity last after a previous infection or vaccination? Let’s take a look at what the evidence shows. <h2>B cells and T cells</h2> To answer this question, we need to understand a bit about how <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-happens-in-our-body-when-we-encounter-and-fight-off-a-virus-like-the-flu-sars-cov-2-or-rsv-207023">immunity</a> to SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID) works. After being infected or vaccinated, the immune system develops specific antibodies that can neutralise SARS-CoV-2. B cells remember the virus for a period of time. In addition, the immune system produces memory T cells that can kill the virus, and remain in the blood for some months after the clearance of the infection or a vaccination. A <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.abf4063?rfr_dat=cr_pub++0pubmed&url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org">2021 study</a> found 98% of people had antibodies against SARS-CoV-2’s spike protein (a protein on the surface of the virus that allows it to attach to our cells) one month after symptom onset. Six to eight months afterwards, 90% of participants still had these neutralising antibodies in their blood. This means the immune system should have recognised and neutralised the same SARS-CoV-2 variant if challenged within six to eight months (if an infection occurred, it should have resulted in mild to no symptoms). <h2>But what about when the virus mutates?</h2> As we know, SARS-CoV-2 has mutated over time, leading to the emergence of new variants such as alpha, beta, delta and omicron. Each of these variants carries mutations that are new to the immune system, even if the person has been previously infected with an earlier variant. A new variant likely won’t be <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adj0070">perfectly recognised</a> – or even <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/pdf/S0092-8674(21)01578-6.pdf">recognised at all</a> – by the already activated memory T or B cells from a previous SARS-CoV-2 infection. This could explain why people can be so readily reinfected with COVID. A recent <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/article/S0140-6736(22)02465-5/fulltext#seccestitle10">review of studies</a> published up to the end of September 2022 looked at the protection conferred by previous SARS-CoV-2 infections. The authors found a previous infection provided protective immunity against reinfection with the ancestral, alpha, beta and delta variants of 85.2% at four weeks. Protection against reinfection with these variants remained high (78.6%) at 40 weeks, or just over nine months, after the previous infection. This protection decreased to 55.5% at 80 weeks (18 months), but the authors noted there was a lack of data at this time point. Notably, an earlier infection provided only 36.1% protection against a reinfection with omicron BA.1 at 40 weeks. Omicron has been described as an <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-022-01143-7">immune escape variant</a>. A prior infection showed a high level of protection against severe disease (above 88%) up to 40 weeks regardless of the variant a person was reinfected with. <h2>What about immunity after vaccination?</h2> So far almost 70 million COVID vaccines <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/topics/covid-19/reporting">have been administered</a> to more than <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/resources/publications/covid-19-vaccine-rollout-update-12-january-2023?language=en">22 million people</a> in Australia. Scientists estimated COVID vaccines prevented around <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099(22)00320-6/fulltext">14.4 million deaths</a> in 185 countries in the first year after they became available. But we know COVID vaccine effectiveness wanes over time. A <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2804451?utm_source=For_The_Media&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=ftm_links&utm_term=050323">2023 review</a> found the original vaccines were 79.6% and 49.7% effective at protecting against symptomatic delta infection at one and nine months after vaccination respectively. They were 60.4% and 13.3% effective against symptomatic omicron at the same time points. This is where booster doses come into the picture. They’re important to keep the immune system ready to fight off the virus, particularly for those who are more vulnerable to the effects of a COVID infection. Plus, regular booster doses can provide immunity against different variants. COVID vaccines are constantly being <a href="https://mvec.mcri.edu.au/references/covid-19/">reviewed and updated</a> to ensure optimal protection against <a href="https://www.who.int/activities/tracking-SARS-CoV-2-variants">current circulating strains</a>, with the latest shot available designed to target <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/ministers/the-hon-mark-butler-mp/media/new-covid-19-vaccines-available-to-target-current-variants">the omicron variant XBB 1.5</a>. This is similar to how we approach seasonal flu vaccines. A <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-50335-6">recent study</a> showed a COVID vaccination provides longer protection against reinfection than natural protection alone. The median time from infection to reinfection in non-vaccinated people was only six months, compared with 14 months in people who had received one, two or three doses of vaccine after their first infection. This is called <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abj2258">hybrid immunity</a>, and other research has similarly found it provides better protection than natural infection alone. It also seems timing is important, as receiving a vaccine too soon after an infection (less than six months) appears to be <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-50335-6">less effective</a> than getting vaccinated later. <h2>What now?</h2> Everyone’s immune system is slightly unique, and SARS-CoV-2 continues to mutate, so knowing exactly how long COVID immunity lasts is complicated. Evidence suggests immunity following infection should generally last six months in healthy adults, and can be prolonged with vaccination. But there are exceptions, and all of this assumes the virus has not mutated so much that it “escapes” our immune response. While many people feel the COVID pandemic is over, it’s important we don’t forget the lessons we have learned. Practices such as wearing a mask and staying home when unwell can reduce the spread of many viruses, not only <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/375/bmj-2021-068302">COVID</a>. Vaccination is not mandatory, but for older adults eligible for a booster under the <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/news/atagi-update-on-the-covid-19-vaccination-program">current guidelines</a>, it’s a very good idea.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221398/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/lara-herrero-1166059">Lara Herrero</a>, Research Leader in Virology and Infectious Disease, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/griffith-university-828">Griffith University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/dr-wesley-freppel-1408971">Dr Wesley Freppel</a>, Research Fellow, Institute for Glycomics, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/griffith-university-828">Griffith University</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-long-does-immunity-last-after-a-covid-infection-221398">original article</a>.

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Drug resistance may make common infections like thrush untreatable

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/christine-carson-109004">Christine Carson</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-western-australia-1067">The University of Western Australia</a> We’ve all heard about antibiotic resistance. This happens when bacteria develop strategies to avoid being destroyed by an antibiotic. The consequences of antibiotic resistance mean an antibiotic previously used to cure bacterial infections no longer works effectively because the bacteria have become resistant to the drug. This means it’s getting harder to cure the infections some bacteria cause. But unfortunately, it’s only one part of the problem. The same phenomenon is also happening with other causes of infections in humans: fungi, viruses and parasites. “Antimicrobial resistance” means the drugs used to treat diseases caused by microbes (bugs that cause infection) no longer work. This occurs with antibacterial agents used against bacteria, antifungal agents used against fungi, anti-parasitic agents used against parasites and antiviral agents used against viruses. This means a wide range of previously controllable infections are becoming difficult to treat – and may become untreatable. <h2>Fighting fungi</h2> Fungi are responsible for a range of infections in humans. Tinea, ringworm and vulvovaginal candidiasis (thrush) are some of the more familiar and common superficial fungal infections. There are also life-threatening fungal infections such as aspergillosis, cryptococcosis and invasive fungal bloodstream infections including those caused by Candida albicans and Candida auris. Fungal resistance to antifungal agents is a problem for several reasons. First, the range of antifungal agents available to treat fungal infections is limited, especially compared to the range of antibiotics available to treat bacterial infections. There are only four broad families of antifungal agents, with a small number of drugs in each category. Antifungal resistance further restricts already limited options. Life-threatening fungal infections happen less frequently than life-threatening bacterial infections. But they’re rising in frequency, especially among people whose immune systems are compromised, including by <a href="https://7news.com.au/news/qld/first-heart-transplant-patient-to-die-from-fungal-infection-at-brisbanes-prince-charles-hospital-identified-as-mango-hill-gp-muhammad-hussain-c-12551559">organ transplants</a> and chemotherapy or immunotherapy for cancer. The threat of getting a drug-resistant fungal infection makes all of these health interventions riskier. The greatest <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2017.00735/full">burden of serious fungal disease</a> occurs in places with limited health-care resources available for diagnosing and treating the infections. Even if infections are diagnosed and antifungal treatment is available, antifungal resistance reduces the treatment options that will work. But even in Australia, common fungal infections are impacted by resistance to antifungal agents. Vulvovaginal candidiasis, known as thrush and caused by Candida species and some closely related fungi, is usually reliably treated by a topical antifungal cream, sometimes supplemented with an oral tablet. However, instances of <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/they-can-t-sit-properly-doctors-treat-growing-number-of-women-with-chronic-thrush-20230913-p5e499.html">drug-resistant thrush</a> are increasing, and new treatments are needed. <h2>Targeting viruses</h2> Even <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-are-there-so-many-drugs-to-kill-bacteria-but-so-few-to-tackle-viruses-137480">fewer antivirals</a> are available than antibacterial and antifungal agents. Most antimicrobial treatments work by exploiting differences between the microbe causing the infection and the host (us) experiencing the infection. Since viruses use our cells to replicate and cause their infection, it’s difficult to find antiviral treatments that selectively target the virus without damaging us. With so few antiviral drugs available, any resistance that develops to one of them significantly reduces the treatment options available. Take COVID, for example. Two antiviral medicines are in widespread use to treat this viral infection: Paxlovid (containing nirmatrelvir and ritonavir) and Lagevrio (molnupiravir). So far, SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID, has not developed significant resistance to either of these <a href="https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/covid-19/low-levels-resistance-paxlovid-seen-sars-cov-2-isolates">treatments</a>. But if SARS-CoV-2 develops resistance to either one of them, it halves the treatment options. Subsequently relying on one would likely lead to its increased use, which may heighten the risk that resistance to the second agent will develop, leaving us with no antiviral agents to treat COVID. The threat of antimicrobial resistance makes our ability to treat serious COVID infections rather precarious. <h2>Stopping parasites</h2> Another group of microbes that cause infections in humans are single-celled microbes such as Plasmodium, Giardia, Leishmania, and Trypanosoma. These microbes are sometimes referred to as parasites, and they are becoming increasingly resistant to the very limited range of anti-parasitic agents used to treat the infections they cause. Several Plasmodium species cause malaria and anti-parasitic drugs have been the cornerstone of malaria treatment for decades. But their usefulness has been significantly reduced by the <a href="https://www.mmv.org/our-work/mmvs-pipeline-antimalarial-drugs/antimalarial-drug-resistance">development of resistance</a>. Giardia parasites cause an infection called giardiasis. This can resolve on its own, but it can also cause severe gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea, nausea, and bloating. These microbes have <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6207226/">developed resistance</a> to the main treatments and patients infected with drug-resistant parasites can have protracted, unpleasant infections. <h2>Resistance is a natural consequence</h2> Treating infections influences microbes’ evolutionary processes. Exposure to drugs that stop or kill them pushes microbes to either evolve or die. The exposure to antimicrobial agents provokes the evolutionary process, selecting for microbes that are resistant and can survive the exposure. The pressure to evolve, provoked by the antimicrobial treatment, is called “selection pressure”. While most microbes will die, a few will evolve in time to overcome the antimicrobial drugs used against them. The evolutionary process that leads to the emergence of resistance is inevitable. But some things can be done to minimise this and the problems it brings. Limiting the use of antimicrobial agents is one approach. This means reserving antimicrobial agents for when their use is known to be necessary, rather than using them “just in case”. Antimicrobial agents are precious resources, holding at bay many infectious diseases that would otherwise sicken and kill millions. It is imperative we do all we can to preserve the effectiveness of those that remain, and give ourselves more options by working to discover and develop new ones.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213460/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/christine-carson-109004">Christine Carson</a>, Senior Research Fellow, School of Medicine, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-western-australia-1067">The University of Western Australia</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/drug-resistance-may-make-common-infections-like-thrush-untreatable-213460">original article</a>.

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From COVID to gastro, why are cruise ships such hotbeds of infection?

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/thea-van-de-mortel-1134101">Thea van de Mortel</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/griffith-university-828">Griffith University</a> Dual outbreaks of <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-11-12/grand-princess-ship-adelaide-covid-19-gastroenteritis/103095704">gastro and COVID</a> on the Grand Princess cruise ship that docked in Adelaide on Monday <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/nov/13/grand-princess-cruise-ship-covid-gastro-outbreak-docks-adelaide-south-australia">have now been declared over</a> by the <a href="https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/8421009/cruise-ship-doctor-declares-dual-virus-outbreaks-over/">doctor on board</a>. A spokesperson for Princess Cruises, which operates the ship, said a number of passengers had presented with symptoms <a href="https://www.9news.com.au/national/grand-princess-no-double-covid19-gastro-outbreak-on-ship-cruise-line-says/5d02d423-3289-4a2b-a580-1ed565b78027">on a previous voyage</a>. But the ship has since been disinfected and the number of people who were ill when the ship arrived into Adelaide was said to be in single digits. While this is positive news, reports of infectious outbreaks on cruise ships evoke a sense of deja vu. We probably all remember the high-profile COVID outbreaks that occurred on cruise ships in 2020. So what is it about cruise ships that can make them such hotspots for infection? <h2>First, what causes these outbreaks?</h2> Respiratory infectious outbreaks on cruise ships may be caused by <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/air-land-sea/cruise-ship-travel">a range of pathogens</a> including SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID) and influenza viruses. These can be spread by <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2015482118">respiratory droplets and aerosols</a> released when people breathe, talk, laugh, cough and sneeze. Historically, <a href="https://jmvh.org/article/the-navy-and-the-1918-19-influenza-pandemic/">troop transport ships</a> also helped to spread the lethal 1918 flu virus between continents. Gastro outbreaks on cruise ships are similarly well documented. More than 90% of cruise ship gastro outbreaks are caused by <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/air-land-sea/cruise-ship-travel#infectious">norovirus</a>, which is spread from person to person, and through contaminated objects or contaminated food or water. Gastro can also be caused by other pathogens such as <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/air-land-sea/cruise-ship-travel">bacteria in contaminated food or water</a>. <h2>What is the risk?</h2> In 2020, around 19% of <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/369/bmj.m1632">Diamond Princess</a> passengers and crew docked in Japan tested positive to COVID. Ultimately, nearly one in four <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8739343/">Ruby Princess</a> passengers and crew docked in Sydney tested positive. However, COVID generally presents a lesser risk nowadays, with most people having some level of immunity from vaccination or previous infection. The outbreak on the Grand Princess appears to have been much smaller in scale. A <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1477893916300680">three-year study</a> before COVID of influenza-like illness (which includes fever), acute respiratory illness (which <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/flu/about/glossary.htm">doesn’t require fever</a> to be present) and gastro on cruise ships found these were diagnosed in 32.7%, 15.9% and 17% of ill passengers, and 10.9%, 80% and 0.2% of ill crew, respectively. An <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/70/ss/ss7006a1.htm">analysis</a> of data from 252 cruise ships entering American ports showed the overall incidence of acute gastro halved between 2006 and 2019. Passenger cases decreased from 32.5 per 100,000 travel days to 16.9, and crew cases from 13.5 per 100,000 travel days to 5.2. This decline may be due to a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6382806/">combination</a> of improved hygiene and sanitation standards. The risk of getting sick with gastro was significantly higher on <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/70/ss/ss7006a1.htm">bigger ships and longer voyages</a>. This is because the longer you are in close contact with others, the greater the chance of exposure to an infectious dose of viruses or bacteria. <h2>Why are cruise ships infection hotspots?</h2> On cruise ships, people tend to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8739343/">crowd together</a> in confined spaces for extended periods. These include dining halls, and during social activities in casinos, bars and theatres. The risk goes up when the environment is noisy, as more droplets and aerosols are shed when people are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6382806/">laughing, shouting or talking loudly</a>. Passengers may come from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1477893916300680?via%3Dihub">multiple countries</a>, potentially bringing variants from different parts of the world. Influenza, which is usually seasonal (late autumn to early spring) onshore, can occur at any time <a href="https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/31/2/433/295546">on a cruise ship</a> if it has international passengers or is calling at international ports. Human behaviour also contributes to the risk. Some passengers <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jtm/article/15/3/172/1821220">surveyed</a> following cruise ship gastro outbreaks indicated they were ill when they boarded the ship, or they became ill but didn’t disclose this because they didn’t want to pay for a doctor or be made to isolate, or they thought it wasn’t serious. Those who became ill were more likely than those who did not to think that hand hygiene and isolation were not effective in preventing infection transmission, and were less likely to wash their hands after using the toilet. Given <a href="https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/factsheets/Pages/norovirus.aspx">faecal contamination</a> is a major source of norovirus transmission, this is concerning. While there are usually a la carte dining options on board, many people will choose a buffet option. From personal experience, food tongs are handled by multiple people, some of whom may not have cleaned their hands. <h2>What can help?</h2> The <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/news/ahppc-statement-advice-to-support-safe-cruising">Department of Health and Aged Care</a> recommends cruise companies encourage crew and passengers to be up-to-date with flu and COVID vaccinations, and encourage anyone who becomes ill to stay in their cabin, or at least avoid crowded spaces and wear a mask in public. They also recommend cruise ships have a plan to identify and contain any outbreaks, including testing and treatment capacity, and communicate to passengers and crew how they can reduce their transmission risk. All passengers and crew should report any signs of infectious illness, and practice good hand hygiene and <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/oralhealth/infectioncontrol/faqs/respiratory-hygiene.html">respiratory etiquette</a>, such as covering their mouth if coughing or sneezing, disposing of used tissues, and washing or sanitising hands after touching their mouth or nose. South Australia’s chief health officer has <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-11-13/grand-princess-ship-covid-gastro-docks-in-adelaide/103096836">commended</a> the Grand Princess crew for their infection protection and control practices, and for getting the outbreak under control.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217534/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/thea-van-de-mortel-1134101">Thea van de Mortel</a>, Professor, Nursing, School of Nursing and Midwifery, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/griffith-university-828">Griffith University</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-covid-to-gastro-why-are-cruise-ships-such-hotbeds-of-infection-217534">original article</a>.

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COVID-19 infection linked to a higher risk of diabetes

A Canadian study looking at more than 600,000 people has found a higher rate of new diabetes diagnoses in those who’d been infected with <a style="font-family: -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Open Sans', 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/covid/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19</a>. <div class="copy"> The study, which is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.8866" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">published</a> in JAMA Network Open, suggests that COVID may be responsible for a 3% to 5% excess burden of diabetes at the population level. The Canadian researchers drew on data from the British Columbia COVID-19 Cohort: a study that collected the health records of people tested for SARS-CoV-2 in the province from January 2020 to December 2021. From this cohort, 125,987 people tested positive to COVID-19. The researchers matched each of these people with four unexposed people of the same age, sex, and test date. This gave them a sample of 629,935 people, a fifth of whom had been infected with SARS-CoV-2. They then went looking for incident diabetes – that is, a new diagnosis – more than 30 days after the COVID test. The COVID-positive group had a rate of 672.2 new diabetes diagnoses per 100,000 people, significantly higher than the control group’s rate of 508.7 new diagnoses per 100,000. This translates to roughly 3-5% extra diabetes cases at a population level, according to the researchers’ analysis. “Our overall results were consistent with several other studies finding higher risk of incident diabetes after SARS-CoV-2 infection; however, the increase in risk was lower in our analysis compared with other studies,” they write in their paper. They suggest a few differences in study populations for this discrepancy. It’s not yet clear why there’s a link between COVID infection and diabetes. In their paper, the researchers point out that SARS-CoV-2 has been shown to attack pancreatic cells which are involved with insulin production. Low-grade inflammation from COVID could also play a role. But these processes are still poorly understood. “Our study highlights the importance of health agencies and clinicians being aware of the potential long-term consequences of COVID-19 and monitoring people after COVID-19 infection for new-onset diabetes for timely diagnosis and treatment,” conclude the researchers. </div> <div id="contributors"> This article was originally published on <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/covid/diabetes-covid-link/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">cosmosmagazine.com</a> and was written by Ellen Phiddian. Images: Getty </div>

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Air travel spreads infections globally, but health advice from inflight magazines can limit that

“Travel safe, travel far, travel wide, and travel often,” <a href="https://thoughtcatalog.com/matthew-kepnes/2014/01/53-travel-quotes-to-inspire-you-to-see-the-world/">says</a> <a href="https://www.nomadicmatt.com/">Nomadic Matt</a>, the American who quit his job to travel the world, write about it and coach others to do the same. But there’s a downside to all this travel, with its unprecedented volume of passengers moving from one side of the world to the other, largely by plane. There’s the risk of those passengers spreading infectious diseases and microorganisms resistant to multiple drugs (superbugs) around the world. Yet, our recently published <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1477893919301218">research</a> into health advice provided by inflight magazines shows plane passengers are given practically no advice on how to limit the spread of infectious diseases. Should we be worried about the part air travel plays in spreading infectious diseases? And what can we do about it? How big is the risk? Low airfares and a series of social and economic factors have made global air travel more common than ever. According to the Australian government department of infrastructure, transport, cities and regional development the <a href="https://www.bitre.gov.au/publications/ongoing/files/International_airline_activity_CY2018.pdf">number of passengers taking international scheduled flights in 2018 was 41.575 million</a>. But the International Air Transport Association projects passenger demand will <a href="https://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Pages/2019-02-27-02.aspx">reach 8.2 billion by 2037</a>. There are many examples of infectious diseases spread via international flying. The World Health Organization documented <a href="https://www.who.int/ith/mode_of_travel/tcd_aircraft/en/">transmission of tuberculosis</a> (TB) on board commercial aircraft during long-haul flights during the 1980s. Research published in 2011 documents the <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/17/7/10-1135_article">transmission of influenza</a> on two transcontinental international flights in May 2009. More recently, the current <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-people-born-between-1966-and-1994-are-at-greater-risk-of-measles-and-what-to-do-about-it-110167">global outbreak of measles</a> in many countries, including the Philippines and the United States, gave rise to the risk of transmission during international travel. In a recent case a <a href="https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/alerts/Pages/measles-alert-january.aspx">baby</a> too young to be vaccinated who had <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/measles-alert-after-infectious-baby-flew-from-manila-went-to-central-coast-20190603-p51tzs.html">measles</a> returned from Manilla in the Philippines to Sydney, exposing travellers on that flight to infection. Then there is the risk of transmitting antimicrobial-resistant organisms that cause disease, such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-tb-and-am-i-at-risk-of-getting-it-in-australia-75290">multi-drug resistant TB</a>. Recently, patients in Victoria and New South Wales were identified as carrying the drug-resistant fungus <a href="https://www2.health.vic.gov.au/about/news-and-events/healthalerts/candida-auris-case-detected-in-victoria">Candida auris</a>, which they acquired overseas. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27890665">One study</a> estimates that over 300 million travellers visit high-risk areas, such as the western Pacific, Southeast Asia and Eastern Mediterranean, each year worldwide, and more than 20% return as new carriers of resistant organisms. These popular destinations, as well as the Middle East, have high rates of drug resistant organisms. How is this happening? Aircraft move large volumes of people around the world swiftly. But what sets them apart from buses and trains is that passengers are close together, in confined spaces, for a long time. This increases the risk of transmitting infections. Passengers interact with high-touch surfaces, such as tray tables, headsets, seats and handles. We cough, sneeze and touch multiple surfaces multiple times during a flight, with limited opportunities to clean our hands with soap and water. Many infections, such as gastroenteritis and diarrhoea, are spread and contracted by touch and contact. What can we do about it? Providing plane travellers with relevant health advice is one way to limit the spread of infectious diseases via air travel. This would include information and advice on routine hand washing with soap and water, or using alcohol-based hand rubs, and other basic measures including cough etiquette, such as coughing into your elbow and covering your nose and face. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jtm/article/4/2/102/1847252">Researchers</a> have looked at the role commercial websites and travel agencies might play in providing that advice. And since the 1990s, airline magazines have been <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jtm/article/4/2/102/1847252">highlighted</a> as an underused source of traveller health advice. More than 20 years on, we discovered little has changed. In our recent study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1477893919301218">Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease</a>, we looked at the content of inflight magazines from 103 airlines issued during January 2019. Of the 47 available online, only a quarter (11) included an official section on passengers’ general health and well-being, of which only two contained information related to infection control and the preventing infectious diseases. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284424/original/file-20190717-173366-w48bmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284424/original/file-20190717-173366-w48bmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284424/original/file-20190717-173366-w48bmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284424/original/file-20190717-173366-w48bmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284424/original/file-20190717-173366-w48bmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284424/original/file-20190717-173366-w48bmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284424/original/file-20190717-173366-w48bmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284424/original/file-20190717-173366-w48bmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="" /></a><figcaption>Inflight magazines have a potential audience of billions. So why not include advice on hand hygiene and coughing etiquette? <a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/1424594042?src=vUDfEziJwFDV7GZr5OYMRA-1-2&studio=1&size=medium_jpg">from www.shutterstock.com</a></figcaption></figure> The first magazine, from a UAE-based airline, had an official section on passenger health and well-being that included very limited relevant content. It advised passengers “with blood diseases or ear, nose and sinus infections should seek medical advice before flying”. There was no further explanation or information, nor were there any strategies to prevent these or other infections. The second magazine, from a USA-based airline, contained general travel health advice, but none specifically about infectious diseases. However there was a full-page, colour advertisement next to the health section. This contained images of many disease causing microorganisms on passengers’ tray tables and advocated the use of a disinfectant wipe for hands and other inflight surfaces. The slogan “because germs are frequent fliers” was displayed across the tray table. This was accompanied by information about the use and effectiveness of disinfectant wipes for hand hygiene and disinfecting surfaces during air travel, public transport use, and in hotels and restaurants. Inflight magazines are valuable assets for airlines and are the source of considerable advertising revenue. They are read by potentially billions of passengers every year. The results of this study show that they are a greatly underused source of information about infection control and measures to prevent the spread of infectious diseases. Airlines should also provide health advice to passengers in other media, in particular video screens, about infection prevention and basic control measures such as hand hygiene, cough etiquette and personal hygiene. Such advice should be provided before, during and after the flight. It could also include destination-related advice for particularly risky travel routes and destinations. More information for passengers Airlines providing health advice to passengers is just one way to limit the spread of infectious diseases and antimicrobial-resistant organisms around the world via air travel. This would need to sit alongside other measures, such as <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/page/travel-industry-information-center">information and guidelines</a> provided to those who travel via the sea. The simple, low-cost measures highlighted in our research could go a long way to help passengers stay healthy and avoid illness from infectious diseases. At the same time, these measures could reduce the impact of outbreaks of infectious diseases for airlines and society as a whole.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120283/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> Writen by Ramon Zenel Shaban and Cristina Sotomayor-Castillo. Republished with permission from <a href="https://theconversation.com/air-travel-spreads-infections-globally-but-health-advice-from-inflight-magazines-can-limit-that-120283" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>. Image: Getty Images

International Travel

COVID nasal sprays may one day prevent and treat infection

We have vaccines to boost our immune response to SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID. We have medicines you can take at home (and in hospital) to treat COVID. Now researchers are trialling something new. They want to develop drugs that stop the virus getting into the body in the first place. That includes nasal sprays that stop the virus attaching to cells in the nose. Other researchers are looking at the potential for nasal sprays to stop the virus replicating in the nose, or to make the nose a hostile place to enter the body. Here’s where the science is up to and what we can expect next. <h2>How could we block the virus?</h2> “Viral blockade”, as the name suggests, is a simple premise based on blocking SARS-CoV-2. In other words, if something gets in its way, the virus cannot attach to a cell and it can’t infect you. As SARS-CoV-2 is a respiratory virus, it makes sense to deliver this type of medicine where the virus mainly enters the body – via the nose, in a nasal spray. There are various groups around the world working on this concept. Some research is still being conducted in the lab. Some agents have progressed to preliminary human trials. None are yet available for widespread use. Heparin Heparin is a common medicine that’s been used for decades to thin the blood. Studies in mice show that when heparin is delivered via the nose, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11095-022-03191-4" target="_blank" rel="noopener">it’s safe</a> and <a href="https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/JVI.01987-20" target="_blank" rel="noopener">effective</a> in preventing the virus binding to nose cells. Researchers believe heparin binds to the virus itself and stops the virus attaching to the cells it’s trying to infect. A <a href="https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05204550" target="_blank" rel="noopener">clinical trial</a> is being <a href="https://www.premier.vic.gov.au/covid-nasal-spray-treatment-clinical-trials-begin" target="_blank" rel="noopener">conducted in Victoria</a> in collaboration between multiple Melbourne-based research centres and the University of Oxford. Covixyl-V Covixyl-V (ethyl lauroyl arginine hydrochloride) is another nasal spray <a href="https://assets.researchsquare.com/files/rs-911449/v1/0577f1f1-56f8-476f-97f6-d27d332ea9ca.pdf?c=1643375660" target="_blank" rel="noopener">under development</a>. It aims to prevent COVID by blocking or modifying the cell surface to prevent the virus from infecting. This compound has been explored for use in various viral infections, and <a href="https://assets.researchsquare.com/files/rs-911449/v1/0577f1f1-56f8-476f-97f6-d27d332ea9ca.pdf?c=1643375660" target="_blank" rel="noopener">early studies</a> in cells and small animals has shown it can prevent attachment of SARS-CoV-2 and reduce the overall viral load. Iota-carrageenan This molecule, which is extracted from seaweed, acts by blocking virus entry into <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2021.746824/full" target="_blank" rel="noopener">airway cells</a>. One study of about 400 health-care workers suggests a nasal spray may reduce the incidence of COVID <a href="https://www.dovepress.com/efficacy-of-a-nasal-spray-containing-iota-carrageenan-in-the-postexpos-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IJGM" target="_blank" rel="noopener">by up to 80%</a>. IGM-6268 This is <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03673-2" target="_blank" rel="noopener">an engineered antibody</a> that binds to SARS-CoV-2, <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/06/210603171306.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">blocking</a> the virus from attaching to cells in the nose. A nasal and oral (mouth) spray are in a clinical trial <a href="https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05184218?term=IGM-6268&draw=2&rank=2" target="_blank" rel="noopener">to assess safety</a>. Cold atmospheric plasma This is a gas that contains charged particles. At cold temperatures, it can <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0165322" target="_blank" rel="noopener">alter the surface</a> of a cell. A <a href="https://www.thno.org/v12p2811.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">lab-based study</a> shows the gas changes expression of receptors on the skin that would normally allow the virus to attach. This results in less SARS-CoV-2 attachment and infection. Scientists now think this technology could be adapted to a nasal spray to prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection. <h2>How could we stop the virus replicating?</h2> Another tactic is to develop nasal sprays that stop the virus replicating in the nose. Researchers are designing genetic fragments that bind to the viral RNA. These fragments – known as “<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-32216-0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">locked nucleic acid antisense oligonucleotides</a>” (or LNA ASOs for short) – put a proverbial spanner in the works and stop the virus from replicating. A spray of these genetic fragments delivered into the nose <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-32216-0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">reduced virus replication in the nose</a> and prevented disease in small animals. <h2>How could we change the nose?</h2> A third strategy is to change the nose environment to make it less hospitable for the virus. That could be by using a nasal spray to change moisture levels (with saline), alter the pH (making the nose more acidic or alkaline), or adding a virus-killing agent (iodine). Saline can reduce the amount of <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaotolaryngology/fullarticle/2768627" target="_blank" rel="noopener">SARS-CoV-2 in the nose</a> by simply washing away the virus. One study has even found that saline nasal irrigation <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/01455613221123737" target="_blank" rel="noopener">can lessen COVID disease</a> severity. But we would need further research into saline sprays. An Australian-led study has found that an iodine-based nasal spray <a href="https://www.theajo.com/article/view/4466/html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">reduced the viral load</a> in the nose. Further <a href="https://www.uwa.edu.au/news/Article/2022/February/Study-finds-nasal-spray-could-aid-battle-against-COVID" target="_blank" rel="noopener">clinical trials</a> are planned. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1386653222001809#!" target="_blank" rel="noopener">One study</a> used a test spray – containing ingredients including eucalyptus and clove oils, potassium chloride and glycerol. The aim was to kill the virus and change the acidity of the nose to prevent the virus attaching. This novel formulation has been tested in the lab and in a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1386653222001809#!" target="_blank" rel="noopener">clinical trial</a> showing it to be safe and to reduce infection rate from about 34% to 13% when compared to placebo controls. <h2>Barriers ahead</h2> Despite promising data so far on nasal sprays for COVID, one of the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-03341-z" target="_blank" rel="noopener">major barriers</a> is keeping the sprays in the nose. To overcome this, most sprays need multiple applications a day, sometimes every few hours. So based on what we know so far, nasal sprays will not singlehandedly beat COVID. But if they are shown to be safe and effective in clinical trials, and receive regulatory approval, they might be another tool to help prevent it. This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-nasal-sprays-may-one-day-prevent-and-treat-infection-heres-where-the-science-is-up-to-193840" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>. Image: Shutterstock

Body

Viral infections including COVID are among the important causes of dementia – one more reason to consider vaccination

With more of us living into old age than at any other time, dementia is increasing steadily worldwide, with major individual, family, societal and economic consequences. Treatment remains largely ineffective and aspects of the underlying pathophysiology are still unclear. But there is good evidence that neurodegenerative diseases – and their manifestation as dementia – are not an inevitable consequence of ageing. Many <a href="https://blogs.otago.ac.nz/pubhealthexpert/dementia-update-on-causes-and-prevention-including-the-role-of-covid-19/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">causes of dementia</a>, including viral infections, are preventable. COVID and other viral infections are centrally involved in insults to the brain and subsequent neurodegeneration. COVID-positive outpatients have a more than three-fold higher risk of Alzheimer’s and more than two-fold <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fneur.2022.904796/full" target="_blank" rel="noopener">higher risk of Parkinson’s disease</a>. A study of almost three million found risks of psychiatric disorders following COVID infection returned to baseline after one to two months. But other disorders, including “<a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpsy/article/PIIS2215-0366(22)00260-7/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noopener">brain fog</a>” and dementia, were still higher than among controls two years later. <blockquote class="twitter-tweet"> 🚨I wrote about “brain fog”—one of the most common & disabling symptoms of long COVID (and many other pre-pandemic conditions), and one of the most misunderstood. Here’s what brain fog actually is, and what it’s like to live with it. 1/ <a href="https://t.co/Gq8iylgfBr">https://t.co/Gq8iylgfBr</a> — Ed Yong is on sabbatical (@edyong209) <a href="https://twitter.com/edyong209/status/1569302974811308032?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">September 12, 2022</a></blockquote> Among more than six million adults older than 65, individuals with COVID were at a <a href="https://content.iospress.com/articles/journal-of-alzheimers-disease/jad220717" target="_blank" rel="noopener">70% higher risk than the uninfected</a> for a new diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease within a year of testing positive for COVID. More than 150,000 people with COVID and 11 million controls have been involved in a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-022-02001-z" target="_blank" rel="noopener">study</a> of long-term consequences of acute COVID infection. A year after infection, there was an overall 40% higher risk (an additional 71 cases per 1000 people) of neurologic disorders, including memory problems (80% higher risk) and Alzheimer’s disease (two-fold higher risk). These risks were elevated even among those not hospitalised for acute COVID. SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID, can <a href="https://rupress.org/jem/article/218/3/e20202135/211674/Neuroinvasion-of-SARS-CoV-2-in-human-and-mouse" target="_blank" rel="noopener">invade brain tissue</a>. Other viruses can also cause direct damage to the brain. A study of almost two million people showed the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35723106/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">risk of Alzheimer’s was markedly lower</a> in those who had been vaccinated against influenza. The cost of dementia Dementia is characterised by <a href="https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia" target="_blank" rel="noopener">progressively deteriorating cognitive function</a>. This involves memory, thinking, orientation, comprehension, language and judgement, often accompanied by changes in mood and emotional control. It is one of the major causes of disability among older people. Worldwide prevalence exceeds 55 million and there are almost ten million new cases annually. It is the seventh leading cause of death. In 2019, the estimated global cost of dementia was US$1.3 trillion and rising. The best known form of dementia – Alzheimer’s – was <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8713166/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">first described in 1907</a>. Dementia is generally described as developing in three stages: <ul> <li> impairment of memory, losing track of time and becoming lost in familiar places </li> <li> further deterioration of memory with forgetfulness of names and recent events, becoming confused at home, losing communication skills and personal care habits, repeated questioning, wandering </li> <li> increased difficulty walking, progressing to inactivity, marked memory loss, involving failure to recognise relatives and friends, disorientation in time and place, changes in behaviour, including lack of personal care and emergence of aggression. </li> </ul> Treatments largely unsuccessful There are no cures and no resounding treatment successes. Management involves support for patients and carers to optimise physical activity, stimulate memory and treat accompanying physical or mental illness. Dementia has a <a href="https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia" target="_blank" rel="noopener">disproportionate impact on women</a>, who account for 65% of dementia deaths and provide 70% of carer hours. We may know less about the pathology of dementia than we imagined: some key data are under scrutiny for <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/potential-fabrication-research-images-threatens-key-theory-alzheimers-disease" target="_blank" rel="noopener">possible inappropriate manipulation</a>. But we do know about many of the causes of dementia and therefore about prevention. In addition to viral infections, there are at least four other contributing causes: <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19782001/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30833374/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">type 2 diabetes</a> (especially if untreated), <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29653873/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">traumatic brain injury</a> and <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/357/bmj.j2353" target="_blank" rel="noopener">alcohol</a>. The brain has its own immune system – cells called microglia. These play a role in brain development, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41588-022-01149-1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">account for 5-10% of brain mass</a> and become activated by damage and loss of function. They are also <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23622250/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">implicated in Alzheimer’s</a> and their inflammation has been shown to be <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23254930/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">central to its pathology</a>. Dementia is preventable In the absence of effective treatment, prevention is an important goal. The association with viral infections means we should pay careful attention to vaccine availability and uptake (for influenza, COVID and any future variants) and place greater emphasis on combatting misinformation regarding vaccines. The association with atherosclerosis and stroke, as well as diabetes, supports primary prevention that involves healthier diets (plant-based diets low in salt and saturated fats), physical activity and weight control. Alcohol consumption is a major problem globally. We have allowed high intake to be normalised and talk about no more than two glasses per day as though that is innocuous. Despite the myth of some beneficial aspects of alcohol, the <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/article/S0140-6736(18)31310-2/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noopener">safest intake is zero drinks per week</a>. <blockquote class="twitter-tweet"> My article speaks about a study that showed that people who chronically consume alcohol and become unconscious because of it, their chances of having dementia increase 10 fold. <a href="https://t.co/0DOFf9X5Zx">https://t.co/0DOFf9X5Zx</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/mrcopsych?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@mrcopsych</a> — Hannah (@Hannah46221416) <a href="https://twitter.com/Hannah46221416/status/1575274580788355074?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">September 29, 2022</a></blockquote> This requires a complete <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19560606/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">national rethink</a> around the availability and acceptability of alcohol as well as assistance with alcohol addiction and treatment of alcohol-related disorders. Traumatic brain injury is associated with sport and, more importantly, falls and car crashes. It is recognised as a global priority and there is increasing awareness of the preventability of falls among older people. The management of head injuries is being ramped up in contact sports. However, data on the impact of best management of the initial injury on subsequent risk of dementia are lacking and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29381704/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">risk remains elevated</a> even 30 years after the initial trauma. The evidence that dementia has preventable causes, including viral infection, should better inform policy and our own behaviour.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190962/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/john-donne-potter-1275983" target="_blank" rel="noopener">John Donne Potter</a>, Professor, Research Centre for Hauora and Health, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/massey-university-806" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Massey University</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/viral-infections-including-covid-are-among-the-important-causes-of-dementia-one-more-reason-to-consider-vaccination-190962" target="_blank" rel="noopener">original article</a>. Image: Getty Images

Mind

Cystitis: how to avoid bladder infections

The word cystitis is one of those words that makes you cringe because everyone knows how painful, uncomfortable and unpleasant having a bladder infection is. It’s not something to feel ashamed about as cystitis doesn’t discriminate – anyone can get a bladder infection, even a really fit and healthy person. Bacteria growing in the bladder or urethra is what causes bladder infections. The urethra is the tube that takes urine out of your body. Although anyone can get a bladder infection, they’re more common in women than men. Common symptoms include: <ul> <li>Burning pain on urination</li> <li>Frequent need to urinate, whether the bladder is full or not</li> <li>Incontinence</li> <li>Lower abdominal pain</li> </ul> How to avoid cystitis: While the best way to avoid bladder infections include a combination of medical treatment and lifestyle adjustments, here are some things you should be doing now. Drink More Water: Increase the amount of water you drink to prevent an infection, but also when you’ve have bladder infection. Fluids perform two jobs: they empty bacteria out of your bladder, and dilute your urine. As urine is made of waste products and acids from your body, concentrated, dark urine is more acidic and is sometimes more painful to pass when you have a bladder infection. Diluted urine is lighter in colour and usually doesn’t burn as much. Frequent Urination: While there are a number of reasons bacteria can grow in your bladder, “holding it,” or not going to the bathroom when you need to, can increase the risk of bacteria growth. One of the best remedies and preventive tools for bladder infections is to urinate frequently. Take Cranberry: One of the most well-known herbal remedies for cystitis, cranberry works by increasing the acidity of urine to inhibit the ability of bacteria to adhere to the bladder or urethra, so it’s more easily washed out. You can take supplements of cranberry as well as drinking it in a juice form. Some people also love cranberry tea. Dress Appropriately: Opting for clothing that lets your skin breathe can help keep the bacteria in your urinary tract at bay. Cotton underwear and loose pants or skirts promote air circulation and reduce the chances of bacteria growth. Image: Getty

Body

We studied how COVID affects mental health and brain disorders up to two years after infection – here’s what we found

The occurrence of mental health conditions and neurological disorders among people recovering from COVID has been a concern since early in the pandemic. Several studies have shown that a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2215036621000845" target="_blank" rel="noopener">significant proportion</a> of adults <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpub/article/PIIS2468-2667(22)00042-1/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noopener">face problems</a> of this kind, and that the risks are greater than following other infections. However, several questions remain. Do the risks of psychiatric and neurological problems dissipate, and if so, when? Are the risks similar in children as in adults? Are there differences between COVID variants? Our new study, published in <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpsy/article/PIIS2215-0366(22)00260-7/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Lancet Psychiatry</a>, explored these issues. In analyses led by my colleague Maxime Taquet, we used the electronic health records of about 1.25 million people diagnosed with COVID, mostly from the US. We tracked the occurrence of 14 major neurological and psychiatric diagnoses in these patients for up to two years. We compared these risks with a closely matched control group of people who had been diagnosed with a respiratory infection other than COVID. We examined children (aged under 18), adults (18-65) and older adults (over 65) separately. We also compared people who contracted COVID just after the emergence of a new variant (notably omicron, but earlier variants too) with those who did so just beforehand. Our findings are a mixture of good and bad news. Reassuringly, although we observed a greater risk of common psychiatric disorders (anxiety and depression) after COVID infection, this heightened risk rapidly subsided. The rates of these disorders among people who had COVID were no different from those who had other respiratory infections within a couple of months, and there was no overall excess of these disorders over the two years. It was also good news that children were not at greater risk of these disorders at any stage after COVID infection. We also found that people who had had COVID were not at higher risk of getting Parkinson’s disease, which had been a concern early in the pandemic. Other findings were more worrying. The risks of being diagnosed with some disorders, such as psychosis, seizures or epilepsy, brain fog and dementia, though mostly still low, remained elevated throughout the two years after COVID infection. For example, the risk of dementia in older adults was 4.5% in the two years after COVID compared with 3.3% in those with another respiratory infection. We also saw an ongoing risk of psychosis and seizures in children. <figure class="align-center "><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479705/original/file-20220817-11701-ygfp4m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479705/original/file-20220817-11701-ygfp4m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479705/original/file-20220817-11701-ygfp4m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479705/original/file-20220817-11701-ygfp4m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479705/original/file-20220817-11701-ygfp4m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479705/original/file-20220817-11701-ygfp4m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479705/original/file-20220817-11701-ygfp4m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="A woman sits by a window, hiding her head." /><figcaption>Rates of depression and anxiety were higher after COVID, but only for a short time. <a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/beautiful-young-blonde-caucasian-female-feeling-2057071157" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Stock Unit/Shutterstock</a></figcaption></figure> In terms of variants, although our data confirms that omicron is a much milder illness than the previous delta variant, survivors remained at similar risk of the neurological and psychiatric conditions we looked at. However, given how recently omicron emerged, the data we have for people who were infected with this variant only goes up to about five months after infection. So the picture may change. Mixed results Overall, our study reveals a mixed picture, with some disorders showing a transient excess risk after COVID, while other disorders have a sustained risk. For the most part, the findings are reassuring in children, but with some concerning exceptions. The results on omicron, the variant currently dominant around the world, indicate that the burden of these disorders is likely to continue, even though this variant is milder in other respects. The study has important caveats. Our findings don’t capture people who may have had COVID but it wasn’t documented in their health records – perhaps because they didn’t have symptoms. And we cannot fully account for the effect of vaccination, because we didn’t have complete information about vaccination status, and some people in our study caught COVID before vaccines became available. That said, in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35447302/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">a previous study</a> we showed the risks of these outcomes were pretty similar in people who caught COVID after being vaccinated, so this might not have significantly affected the results. Also, the risks observed in our study are relative to people who had had other respiratory infections. We don’t know how they compare to people without any infection. We also don’t know how severe or long lasting the disorders were. Finally, our study is observational and so cannot explain how or why COVID is associated with these risks. Current theories include persistence of the virus in the nervous system, the immune reaction to the infection, or problems with blood vessels. These are being investigated in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/braincomms/advance-article/doi/10.1093/braincomms/fcac206/6668727?searchresult=1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">separate research</a>.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188918/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/paul-harrison-1371295" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Paul Harrison</a>, Professor of Psychiatry, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-oxford-1260" target="_blank" rel="noopener">University of Oxford</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-studied-how-covid-affects-mental-health-and-brain-disorders-up-to-two-years-after-infection-heres-what-we-found-188918" target="_blank" rel="noopener">original article</a>. Image: Getty Images

Mind

Understanding how animals become infected with COVID-19 can help control the pandemic

When veterinarians at the Antwerp Zoo noticed <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/05/hippos-test-positive-covid-antwerp-zoo-belgium">two hippopotamuses with runny noses</a>, they didn’t just offer them tissues to blow their noses. They administered tests, which came back positive for COVID-19, the worldwide virus that has plagued the globe. Since the start of the global pandemic almost two years ago, humans have not been the only species to contract the COVID-19 virus. Although the Belgian hippos were the first of their species to contract the virus, it has spread throughout the entire animal kingdom. COVID-19 has revealed how health connects humans, animals and the environment — <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/one-health">the approach that considers these relationships and connections is known as “One Health.”</a> Responding to the pandemic has been a model of One Health in action. Veterinarians, physicians and environmental experts have needed to collaborate to determine which <a href="https://ovc.uoguelph.ca/news/node/632">species are susceptible to better understand how the COVID-19 virus spreads</a>. <h2>Infected pets</h2> In the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic — if you can remember that far back — alarming reports of pets infected with the COVID-19 virus <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/canine-corner/202003/unfounded-fears-dogs-can-spread-covid-19-can-cause-harm">raised unfounded fears regarding the potential exposure and risk of viral infections</a>. In April 2020, two cats from different households in different parts of New York state became <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2020/s0422-covid-19-cats-NYC.html">the first domestic cats in America to contract the COVID-19 virus</a>, followed several months later by the <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/coronavirus/cat-becomes-first-animal-in-u-k-to-test-positive-for-covid-19-1.5040581">first positive British cat</a>. And although the first American dog to test positive for the COVID-19 virus died within a few months, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/first-dog-to-test-positive-for-covid-in-us-dies">his symptoms indicated he likely had cancer</a>, suggesting that the virus may not have been the sole cause of his death. Although confirmed COVID-19 in pets is relatively uncommon, dogs and cats are at risk from <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/615304">catching the virus</a> from an infected household member. Conversely, however, and to great relief, overwhelming agreement has <a href="https://www.bva.co.uk/coronavirus/frequently-asked-questions/#frequently-asked-questions-owners">emerged among major</a> <a href="https://www.canadianveterinarians.net/coronavirus-covid-19">veterinary societies</a> that <a href="https://www.avma.org/resources-tools/animal-health-and-welfare/covid-19/sars-cov-2-animals-including-pets">the risk of humans</a> contracting COVID-19 <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/healthypets/covid-19/pets.html">from their dogs and cats</a> is extremely low. <iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/KDne4Zm4HBE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe> A VICE report on COVID-19 and pets. Interestingly, an article in Scientific American reported on studies that showed that of the dogs and cats who lived in a household with a positive family member, <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/people-with-covid-often-infect-their-pets/">one of every five of the pets had the virus, though symptoms were relatively mild</a>. Currently, there is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abg2296">no need for dogs and cats to be vaccinated</a>, but <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/8423409/covid-19-vaccine-animals-zoos/">pharmaceutical representatives are confident</a> in their ability to readily produce a vaccine to protect pets. <h2>Animals at risk</h2> At the beginning of this pandemic, researchers were eager to discover the extent to which COVID-19 was transmittable from animals to humans, given the potential for animals to “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-01574-4">spark new outbreaks</a>.” Early on, at least seven big cats — lions and tigers — at the Bronx Zoo <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/tiger-coronavirus-covid19-positive-test-bronx-zoo">tested positive for COVID-19</a>. By the end of 2021, more than 300 animals representing 15 different species contracted COVID-19, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/more-animal-species-are-getting-covid-19-for-the-first-time">including hyenas, lions, tigers, snow leopards, gorillas, otters and deer</a>. Recently, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/jan/08/snow-leopard-dies-covid-19-illinois-zoo">four snow leopards who contracted the disease</a> from humans have died in American zoos. Risks remain elsewhere in the animal kingdom. Captive gorillas, for instance, <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/coronavirus/nearly-all-gorillas-at-atlanta-s-zoo-have-contracted-covid-19-1.5586112">are highly susceptible to COVID-19</a>. Were the disease to spread to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abc5635">gorillas in the wild</a>, it would likely contribute to the depletion of the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/9404/136250858">critically endangered species</a>. <a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439954/original/file-20220110-23-1a86u4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439954/original/file-20220110-23-1a86u4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" alt="an adult lowland gorilla and two smaller ones in an enclosure" /></a> Nearly all of Zoo Atlanta’s Western lowland gorillas tested positive for the COVID-19 Delta variant in September 2021 after catching it from a zoo staff worker. (AP Photo/Ron Harris) <h2>Animal vaccines</h2> If humans are not contracting COVID-19 from animals, why are scientists worried? After all, pets are more at risk from infected humans, and individuals who work closely with wild animals take appropriate precautions to prevent transmission. However, it is important to remember that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-00531-z">animals are the likely source of the current pandemic</a>: bats, in particular, carry a number of <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-51496830">different coronavirus strains and are considered by many as the original carriers of SARS-CoV-2</a>, the virus that causes COVID-19. The transmission of the COVID-19 virus between humans and animals has been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abe5901">found in minks</a>, a phenomenon that spread within <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/mink-covid-virus-mutation/">mink farms in the United States and Europe</a>. As a result, millions of minks have since been culled and there have been calls for banning mink farming. The most recent solution to human-animal transmission has been developing COVID-19 vaccines for animals. Because zoos are responsible for “<a href="https://www.the-scientist.com/news-opinion/the-rise-of-covid-19-vaccines-for-animals-69503">often rare and high-value animals</a>,” some have begun to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/bears-baboons-tigers-are-getting-covid-vaccines-at-zoos-across-the-us">vaccinate their residents</a>. <h2>New viral diseases</h2> There are concerns that <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/how-who-is-working-to-track-down-the-animal-reservoir-of-the-sars-cov-2-virus">the COVID-19 virus has the potential to remain undetected in an animal</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-00531-z">could mutate and become more infectious or dangerous to humans</a>. An estimated <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-54246473">three of every four new infectious diseases in humans originated in animals</a> — and this continues to worry scientists. Researchers worry about “<a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1678-4685-GMB-2020-0355">zoonotic spillover</a>,” the movement of diseases between animals and humans, given the increased risk of “<a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.17269/s41997-020-00409-z">infectious agents capable of jumping the species barrier</a>.” The current pandemic has been called “<a href="https://impakter.com/coronavirus-china-one-health-solution/">a wake-up call</a>” for recognizing how the importance of One Health: a collaborative global vision committed to the health and well-being of humans, animals and the environment that can thwart future global health crises.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important; text-shadow: none !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173978/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/beth-daly-1224943">Beth Daly</a>, Associate Professor of Anthrozoology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-windsor-3044">University of Windsor</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/understanding-how-animals-become-infected-with-covid-19-can-help-control-the-pandemic-173978">original article</a>. Image: Shutterstock

Family & Pets

Two-thirds of staff at infected nursing home unvaccinated

Five residents at an aged care home in Sydney's northwest have tested positive to COVID-19. SummitCare in Baulkam Hills sent a letter last night informing residents that those who tested positive were "resting comfortably and not displaying any symptoms". The residents have been transferred to Westmead Hospital as a "precautionary measure". The rise in infections among residents comes after two nurses had worked at the facility while unknowingly infectious. Despite 96 per cent of residents in the home being vaccinated, it was revealed that only one-third of staff members had received the COVID-19 jab. Summit Care's chief operating officer Michelle Sloane said that one of the infected staff members was unvaccinated and the vaccination status of the other worker was "unclear". The response caused an outcry from the daughter of one of the infected residents, who told the ABC she had assumed all the staff would have been vaccinated. "I think it's a disgrace. If I had known, that would've meant I would've made other decisions around my parents," she said. She then took to social media to blast reports from the facility that the residents are in “good spirits”, saying that is far from the truth. “What nonsense,” she wrote. “My father is terrified and is positive. Staff have been told to not talk to residents to minimise interaction. Please remember they are human and are frightened. Bring in social workers!” Speaking to Sunrise, Deputy Premier John Barilaro said he was "alarmed" to hear that two third of the staff at the facility were unvaccinated. "I'm like every other Australian and wondering why our frontline workers in aged care have not been vaccinated," he said. "It's something that is alarming and yes the Federal Government set a timeline of the middle of September for workers to be vaccinated. "I think that today what we have seen overnight and yesterday, it's a reminder that this class of work, these frontline workers, must have priority and I would encourage those aged care facilities to get out and trying to vaccinations up before September."

News

Our bodies or infection: What actually kills us?

A growing body of evidence suggests that our immune systems may be responsible for the deaths of others from infectious diseases such as COVID-19. Since a virus doesn’t “want” to kill the host - us - and has a sole goal of surviving and reproducing, it might be that our bodies are the cause of death following infection. In an effort to stop the virus in its tracks, the body can harm major organs that include the lungs and heart. This has led some doctors to focus on reducing the immune response of infected patients in order to save them. But, the question still remains: what’s the point of having an immune system if it kills us? The answer may be to do with our evolutionary history and require us to think about immunity in terms of communication and behaviour alongside biology. And, the more that researchers can understand how our immune system originated, the more likely they are to develop better ways of dealing with it. What does behaviour have to do with immune systems? This ties into the concept of the behavioural immune system. Feeling disgusted or repulsed by something because it makes us feel like it poses a threat to our health is just one example. Animals do this too, with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25256957/">research showing</a> that some animals avoid others that show signs of illness. But, unlike other animals, humans are likely to be compassionate towards those with symptoms of illness or injury, according to more recent <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27405223/">theoretical research</a>. According to this theory, that is why people tend to exclaim when feeling pain, rather than silently moving away. Some psychologists argue that this is because immune responses involve communication just as much as they do self-maintenance, since people who have received care in the past have probably tended to do better than those trying to survive on their own. In evolutionary literature, these kinds of displays of pain are referred to as kinds of “signals”, which can be faked to exploit the world around us. Faking it is an evolutionary thing How many times have you faked being in pain or sick to avoid an obligation? If your answer is ‘all the time’, you’re not alone. People feign these signals frequently to get support from others, avoid obligations or give themselves more time to complete a task. And this is an important part of any signalling system, where the response to a particular signal will start to dictate how and why that signal is used. People aren’t the only ones looking to benefit Germs also use immune signals for their own gain. While some viruses hijack human immune responses such as coughs and sneezes to get passed on to new hosts, germs like SARS-COV-2 - which causes COVID-19 - can prevent our signalling to others that we are sick so it can spread without anyone realising. Viewing immunity as more than just a biological system could help us understand and even predict how particular infections will interact with a patient’s immune system, where <a href="https://theconversation.com/immune-response-might-be-more-about-signalling-to-others-that-you-need-help-and-less-about-protecting-your-body-160133">future research</a> could help us sort the immunity hijackers from other germs.

Body

“Very serious”: Thousands in Sydney potentially exposed to infected woman

Health experts worry thousands of people have been exposed to COVID-19 after one infected woman travelled across the city using a dozen different trains and light rail services. NSW Premier Gladys Berejiklian announced on Thursday that a woman who is employed at a Sydney hotel complex that worked with travellers quarantining, tested positive for the virus. The woman travelled on the train from Minto to Lidcombe and Central and on the light rail from Central to Darling Harbour on a number of occasions while she was potentially highly infectious. Hotel staff at the Ibis hotel in Darling Harbour and Novotel are all being tested and anyone who lives in the Minto area is being urged to come forward for testing. Ms Berejiklian said the situation was “very serious” and she “won’t hesitate to act” if the situation requires NSW’s restrictions to change.

News

COVID super-spreader infects 71 people in 60 seconds

<div class="post_body_wrapper"> <div class="post_body"> <div class="body_text "> An asymptomatic carrier of coronavirus rode an elevator alone, had no symptoms and self-quarantined after travel but managed to infect 71 people. Intensive contact tracing is revealing how infectious the virus can be, with the US Centres for Disease Control (CDC) analysing the impact of this single traveller. Coronavirus can spread through droplets, be carried through the air and linger on surfaces as well as be transferred through asymptomatic carriers. The CDC study did a deep-dive contact tracing effort in Heilongjiang Province, China, which had not reported a new coronavirus diagnosis since March 11. On the second of April, a man in the area suffered a serious stroke but had not tested positive for coronavirus. He was rushed to the hospital and his three sons took turns staying by his bedside, furthering infecting 28 people, including a nurse and a doctor. Before being diagnosed with coronavirus, the stroke victim was taken to a second hospital where he was the source of another 20 infections. Another man had also presented with coronavirus symptoms and his close contacts were tested. They were also all positive tests. Everyone the second patient had been in contact with was tested and put into lockdown, but for 50 of them, it was too late. Contact tracers were urgently trying to find out the source of the outbreak, as there were fears it could have started within the community. After tracing it back through the community, they tested the man's girlfriend and her daughter who lived with them, who both tested positive for coronavirus. The contact tracers then hit a wall, as no one had travelled or had contacts who had travelled. Due to standard genome sequencing of the virus, the tests indicated it had come from overseas, but every chain of contacts had come up blank as no one had travelled. It was only until they extended their search to people living in the same residential apartment tower that they figured out where the coronavirus cluster had started. A woman who had recently travelled from the United States and intensely followed self-isolation protocol still tested positive for coronavirus antibodies. After detailed questioning from the contact tracers, which showed that the women had not come into direct contact with each other, there was only one possible source of contagion. The lift that was shared by that portion of the apartment block. The traveller had used it to get into the apartment where she self-isolated for 14 days and had food delivered. “Therefore, we believe A0 (the traveller from the US) was an asymptomatic carrier and that B1.1 (the daughter) was infected by contact with surfaces in the elevator in the building where they both lived,” the researchers wrote. “Our results illustrate how a single asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection could result in widespread community transmission,” the study authors concluded. The researchers are urging people to not become complacent, as the virus is still wreaking havoc. It appears that isolation is the only tool available to stop the spread. “Continued measures to protect, screen, and isolate infected persons are essential to mitigating and containing the COVID-19 pandemic,” the study reads. </div> </div> </div>

Caring

Coronavirus: Victoria records another 165 infections as state goes into lockdown

<div class="post_body_wrapper"> <div class="post_body"> <div class="body_text "> Victoria has recorded 165 new coronavirus cases with the state's total growing past 3,000. Thirty of the new cases have been linked to outbreaks, with 135 currently under investigation. 40 Victorians are in hospital, including nine in intensive care. There are also 18 new cases at the commission towers with the total at 111. Victorian Premier Daniel Andrews is expected to address the media later. Residents in Melbourne's nine quarantined public housing towers are in day 5 of "hard lockdown" with 3,000 residents completed overnight. Those who have tested positive cannot leave their rooms. Daily temperature checks will also be conducted for children at schools across Melbourne's locked-down zones. More than 14,000 infra-red thermometers will be sent to public, Catholic and independent schools as well as being sent to early childhood education and care services. Education Minister James Merlino said that the daily checks would "help make sure unwell students stay at home and do not risk spreading coronavirus". “I understand that this is a stressful time for parents, but we are following the best medical advice and taking every possible precaution to ensure the safety of all Victorians,” he said. Children who attend a school in metropolitan Melbourne or Mitchell Shire will have an extra week of holidays if they're in prep to year 10. </div> </div> </div>

News

Man infects at least 32 people with coronavirus in 2.5 hours

A man unknowingly infected at least 32 people with coronavirus at a choir practice, a <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/mm6919e6.htm?s_cid=mm6919e6_e&deliveryName=USCDC_921-DM28169">new report by the US Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)</a> found. The choir practice was held in Skagit Valley, Washington, on March 10 – three days before President Donald Trump declared national emergency over the COVID-19 outbreak. Out of the 122 members of the Skagit Valley Chorale, 61 attended the evening practice at the Mount Vernon Presbyterian Church. One of those singers had cold-like symptoms starting on March 7 but only realised it was COVID-19 after a test later confirmed the diagnosis, according to the CDC study. The members avoided direct physical contact such as hugs and handshakes. “It seemed like a normal rehearsal, except that choirs are huggy places,” conductor Adam Burdick told the <a href="https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2020-03-29/coronavirus-choir-outbreak">Los Angeles Times</a>. “We were making music and trying to keep a certain distance between each other.” The practice lasted 2.5 hours. Most members sat in their usual rehearsal seats. Once seated, they practiced singing for 40 minutes before splitting into two smaller groups for a 50-minute block. After a 15-minute break, during which some members shared cookies and oranges, they all reconvened for a final 45-minute practice session. “During the entire rehearsal, no one sneezed, no one coughed, no one there appeared to be sick in any way,” member Carolynn Comstock told <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/01/us/washington-choir-practice-coronavirus-deaths/index.html">KIRO</a>. Within days, people began showing COVID-19 symptoms. In less than two weeks, 32 people tested positive for COVID-19 and another 20 were considered to have probable infections. Three were hospitalised, and two of them died. The CDC said people with symptoms should isolate or self-quarantine to prevent further spread of the disease. “The potential for superspreader events underscores the importance of physical distancing, including avoiding gathering in large groups, to control spread of COVID-19,” the agency said in the report.

Body

Coronavirus: Australia’s most infected group revealed

People in their 20s have more confirmed cases of COVID-19 than any other age group in Australia, according to the federal health department data. As of Wednesday, 492 individuals aged 25 to 29 have tested positive for the new coronavirus than any other age group, representing <a href="http://www9.health.gov.au/cda/source/rpt_5.cfm">11.37 per cent of all reported cases across the country</a>. It is followed by those aged 20 to 24 with 9.6 per cent and those aged 60 to 64 with 9.3 per cent. According to Professor Lyn Gilbert, senior researcher from the University of Sydney’s Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, the Australian statistics skewed young because infection and testing had been focused on returned travellers and known contacts. Gilbert said there is a sentiment among some younger adults that they do not need to take the same precautions. “Where young people gather in tight groups and socialise, they tend to get infected,” she told <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/31/australians-in-their-20s-have-more-confirmed-cases-of-coronavirus-than-any-other-age-group">The Guardian</a>, referring to the clusters of infections from a <a href="https://www.marieclaire.com.au/coronavirus-wedding-emma-metcalf-scott-maggs">March 6 wedding in NSW</a> and backpackers’ movement in <a href="https://7news.com.au/lifestyle/health-wellbeing/coronavirus-cluster-in-bondi-as-infectious-backpackers-unknowingly-spread-virus-c-900474">Bondi</a>. “There is a feeling that it doesn’t affect them, they are not going to get sick. And mostly they are not – they won’t get a severe illness. But they pass it on.” The data came as state governments introduced restrictions on public gatherings and house visits, with penalties ranging from <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-03-30/state-by-state-coronavirus-two-person-rule-on-gatherings/12101920">warnings to on-the-spot fines</a>.

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Understanding how animals become infected with COVID-19 can help control the pandemic

Two-thirds of staff at infected nursing home unvaccinated

Our bodies or infection: What actually kills us?

“Very serious”: Thousands in Sydney potentially exposed to infected woman

COVID super-spreader infects 71 people in 60 seconds

Coronavirus: Victoria records another 165 infections as state goes into lockdown

Man infects at least 32 people with coronavirus in 2.5 hours

Coronavirus: Australia’s most infected group revealed

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