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How holidaying in developing countries affects local inequality

<div class="theconversation-article-body"><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/alexander-tziamalis-333272">Alexander Tziamalis</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/sheffield-hallam-university-846">Sheffield Hallam University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/yuan-wang-1360783">Yuan Wang</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/sheffield-hallam-university-846">Sheffield Hallam University</a> A few years ago, one of us (Alex) went for a vacation to the Dominican Republic. The motivation was similar to millions of other tourists every year: escape the daily routine, enjoy the sun and beaches, and gather some strength to face another cold winter. Unfortunately, a few things weren’t very conducive to a happy break. The staff at the mammoth hotel were making as little as US$1 (£0.79) for a 12-hour shift. Worse, most of them lived in a shanty town nearby. They had no sewers and no reliable electricity. The hotel also exploited its power over local farmers to procure food exceedingly cheaply. Schools were overcrowded and many children dropped out to work in businesses like these hotels and farms, perpetuating the cycle. This anecdotal picture is corroborated by the country’s economic data. Despite <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=DO">GDP growth</a> frequently above 5% each year, the Dominican Republic suffers from <a href="https://dominicantoday.com/dr/local/2023/02/17/dominican-republic-shows-a-high-level-of-economic-inequality-in-latin-america-and-the-caribbean/">substantial inequality</a>. The wealthiest 1% capture 30% of all income, compared to 18% in the US. But how bad is tourism for inequality in developing countries overall? <a href="https://shura.shu.ac.uk/31942/">Our recent research</a> has sought to answer this, looking at 71 countries around the world. The picture is complicated, but the overall results are not as bleak as you might fear. <h2>Upsides and downsides</h2> Clearly there are pros and cons to tourism. It makes holidaymakers happy while bringing people closer and promoting awareness of other cultures. It empowers communities and provides disadvantaged groups with opportunities, from the local artisan who can sell directly to customers, to women <a href="https://blogs.worldbank.org/psd/empowering-women-through-tourism-0">who would otherwise</a> be struggling to find work. Tourism sustains a lot of jobs and economic value overall, making it attractive to governments as a way of boosting growth. In 2019 there were a whopping <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/209334/total-number-of-international-tourist-arrivals/#:%7E:text=Despite%20the%20significant%20annual%20increase,lowest%20figure%20recorded%20since%201989">1.5 billion</a> international tourist arrivals around the world. They were serviced by <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/1268465/number-of-travel-and-tourism-jobs-worldwide/#:%7E:text=Despite%20the%20increase%2C%20the%20number,to%20320%20million%20in%202023.">nearly 300 million</a> travel and tourism workers, and the sector generated <a href="https://wttc.org/research/economic-impact#:%7E:text=In%202022%2C%20the%20Travel%20%26%20Tourism,%2C%20only%2014.1%25%20below%202019.">over 7%</a> of global GDP. On the other hand, tourism can <a href="https://www.theworldcounts.com/challenges/consumption/transport-and-tourism/negative-environmental-impacts-of-tourism">degrade the environment</a>. Witness the Inca citadel of Machu Picchu in the Peruvian Andes needing to <a href="https://www.machupicchutrek.net/how-many-tourists-visit-machu-picchu-annually/">restrict</a> the number of visitors, for instance, because the site was <a href="https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/d2f4fc1c7b314cc8a6c8af466cec0d24">getting damaged</a>. Equally, <a href="https://www.itmustbenow.com/feature/our-big-questions/exploitation-travel-tourism/">tourism is associated</a> with other <a href="https://www.cntraveler.com/galleries/2015-06-19/barcelona-bhutan-places-that-limit-tourist-numbers">knock-on effects</a> such as water scarcity, pollution, crime, sex exploitation and destroying tradition. But what about inequality? The tourism industry <a href="https://www.itmustbenow.com/feature/our-big-questions/exploitation-travel-tourism/">is frequently associated</a> with ridiculously low wages, long hours without a break, and unhealthy conditions for live-in staff. Dedicated trade unions often don’t exist, or they’re underpowered and cannot effectively protect workers. Tourism can also distort the economy. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2022/aug/10/i-wanted-my-children-to-grow-up-here-how-airbnb-is-ruining-local-communities-in-north-wales">In the UK</a> for example, communities in many popular tourist destinations cannot afford to buy a home anymore. Yet when you look at how tourism affects equality overall, the existing academic literature shows conflicting results. A number of studies <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0160738316301281#:%7E:text=Findings%20confirm%20that%20tourism%20increases%20income%20inequality%20in%20developing%20economies.&text=The%20squared%20tourism%20revenue%20has%20a%20significant%20negative%20impact%20on%20income%20inequality.&text=Findings%20confirm%20the%20presence%20of%20Kuznets%20curve%20hypothesis.">find that</a> it worsens income inequality, while others <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0047287520954538">find the opposite</a>. If you were wondering about the Dominican Republic, there’s <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0047287518789272#:%7E:text=The%20results%20showed%20that%20income,in%20the%20distribution%20of%20wealth.">a study</a> showing that tourism actually has a negligible impact on inequality. <h2>Our findings</h2> Ours is the first study to <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/13548166231177106">look at the effect</a> of a few potential determining factors to try and gain a deeper understanding of the relationship between tourism and equality. These factors include the country’s level of economic and financial development, inflation rate and government policies seeking to redistribute wealth. Our dataset spans from 1996–2016. We would have ideally looked at even more than 71 countries, but others had to be excluded because good-quality data was unavailable. We found that tourism eased income inequality in lower income countries when it went hand in hand with redistributive policies. <a href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:6nbn68M3_toJ:https://dailynews.co.tz/how-tz-could-attract-more-tourists/&cd=8&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=uk">Tanzania, for example,</a> gets 17% of its GDP from tourism. This has enabled the country to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8121963/">significantly increase</a> its spending on health, education and infrastructure. In wealthier countries, the opposite was counterintuitively the case: increasing tourism exacerbated inequality when combined with redistributive policies. It may be that in places where education and infrastructure are already at high levels, improving them has less effect on inequality. Or it may be that improving the welfare system reduces workers’ incentive to upskill and seek better paid jobs in other sectors. These possibilities need further investigation. Our analysis also highlighted the importance of financial opportunities such as broad access to bank credit. All countries with more inclusive financial systems comparatively reduced inequality when they brought in more tourists. It might be that financial access enables a broader cross-section of entrepreneurs to set up or expand tourist businesses, with knock-on benefits to their communities. This is bad news for developing countries like India, Brazil South Africa and Barbados, where <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2015/09/14/long-term-finance-shortage-post-2008-crisis-blunts-progress-in-developing-countries">it’s difficult</a> to obtain long-term loan, which usually come with onerous terms. Having said that, the benefits from financial access were more marked in developed countries. In such countries, it may be that this galvanises proportionately more entrepreneurs because they are not being held back to the same extent by other problems like corruption and poor education. When we looked at the effect of inflation, it worsened inequality in richer countries <a href="https://www.niesr.ac.uk/blog/unequal-impact-rising-inflation">like the UK</a> as tourism increases. We suspect that when inflation takes off in wealthier countries, it’s more difficult for tourism workers to renegotiate their wages quickly because employment contracts are more formal. Equally, poorer countries are often more used to higher inflation, so workers may be more adept at such negotiations. So overall, it’s not possible to say that increasing tourism widens or reduces inequality – it very much depends on other factors. But clearly tourism can be good news for inequality in poorer countries when it’s combined with redistributive policies and financial inclusion. This certainly won’t solve problems like worker exploitation across the board, but it does mean that holidaying in developing countries will often be helping them to become more equal over time.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208690/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/alexander-tziamalis-333272">Alexander Tziamalis</a>, Senior Lecturer in Economics, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/sheffield-hallam-university-846">Sheffield Hallam University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/yuan-wang-1360783">Yuan Wang</a>, Seinor Lecturer in Economics, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/sheffield-hallam-university-846">Sheffield Hallam University</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-holidaying-in-developing-countries-affects-local-inequality-208690">original article</a>. </div>

Travel Trouble

From this week, you’ll be able to look up individual companies’ gender pay gaps

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/natasha-bradshaw-1358801">Natasha Bradshaw</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/grattan-institute-1168">Grattan Institute</a> There will be nervous executives all over Australia this week. Come Tuesday, large private sector organisations will have their company’s gender pay gaps published for the first time for all to see, name, and shame. As they brace for the fallout, let’s look at how what we will be told is changing, and what it will mean for you. <h2>What is changing?</h2> Every year, the Workplace Gender Equality Agency (<a href="https://www.wgea.gov.au/">WGEA</a>) collects information from every employer with more than 100 employees. Until now it has published only a summary of the findings on its website, including Australia’s overall gender pay gap, and the gap by industry and employment arrangement. But for the first time legislation enacted last year also allows WGEA to publish the gender pay gaps of individual employers. <figure class="align-right zoomable"><figcaption></figcaption></figure> Tuesday’s release will include each large company’s median gender pay gap, and the share of women it employs in lower- and higher-paid jobs. Employers will have the chance to publish a <a href="https://www.wgea.gov.au/data-statistics/data-explorer">statement</a> alongside their results to provide context. That means from Tuesday you will be able to look on the <a href="https://www.wgea.gov.au/">WGEA website</a> and find the median gender pay gap of your large private sector organisation, or of an organisation you are thinking of joining, and how it stacks up against its competitors. <h2>Why the change?</h2> Australian women, like women elsewhere, have made astounding progress in the workforce in recent decades. Women are both working and earning more than ever before. But progress has stalled, and the gender pay gap remains stubbornly persistent. The Albanese government has shown its commitment to gender equity by increasing the <a href="https://www.servicesaustralia.gov.au/child-care-subsidy">childcare subsidy</a> and extending <a href="https://www.servicesaustralia.gov.au/parental-leave-pay">paid parental leave</a>. But beyond this, the options for governments are limited. Most of the barriers to women getting better-paid jobs can only be broken by employers. The public naming and shaming that will begin on Tuesday will push accountability onto employers, holding them responsible for the conditions in their workplaces. Workers and bosses are going to take notice: when employer gender pay gaps were released in the UK in 2018 it was the <a href="https://www.genderpay.co.uk/wp-downloads/moving-forward-may-2018/presentations/Gender_Pay_Gap_Moving_Forward_May_2018_Studio_2_5_Nick_Bishop.pdf">biggest business news story of the year</a>, with coverage rivalling the wedding of Prince Harry and Meghan Markle. At a time when companies are fighting for top talent, it is going to make it more difficult for employers with large pay gaps to hire talented women. Research shows that on average women are willing to accept a <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3584259">5% lower salary</a> in order to avoid working for the employers with the biggest gender pay gaps. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/vAr1Lhaw0Ao?wmode=transparent&start=0" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe><figcaption>Workplace Gender Equality Agency.</figcaption></figure> <h2>Let’s not rush to judge</h2> While <a href="https://www.wgea.gov.au/about/our-legislation/publishing-employer-gender-pay-gaps">naming and shaming</a> will help make this policy effective, we should be careful about rushing to judgement. It is possible for an employer to be making serious efforts to improve while its gap remains large. And some actions aimed at improving things, such as implementing a gender quota on entry-level positions, can worsen a company’s apparent gender pay gap in the short term by temporarily increasing the number of lowly-paid women. Also, there will be firms that have a low gender pay gap because they pay both men and women poorly. On Tuesday, we should instead look closely at whether the organisation has outlined clear steps it will take to improve, and how it compares to its competitors. In future years, we will be able to see how things have changed. <h2>What will matter is what employers do next</h2> Since the UK reforms were introduced in 2018, the gender pay gap has narrowed by <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3584259">one-fifth</a>, with the biggest improvements coming from the worst offenders. UK companies have also become more likely to include wage information in their job ads, equalising the starting point of wage negotiations for all applicants. But for existing employees, the narrowing of the gap has been caused more by slower growth in men’s wages than faster growth in women’s wages, which isn’t good news for anyone looking for a pay rise. The full effects of the Australian reforms won’t be seen for some time. It is likely that making high-paid jobs more accessible to women will allow employers to tap into a new talent pool and encourage more highly credentialed women into the workforce, adding to productivity growth. What is clear now is that if we want to narrow the gender pay gap, we need to know what’s happening. The avalanche of data due on Tuesday will be a start.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224167/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/natasha-bradshaw-1358801">Natasha Bradshaw</a>, Senior Associate, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/grattan-institute-1168">Grattan Institute</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-this-week-youll-be-able-to-look-up-individual-companies-gender-pay-gaps-224167">original article</a>.

Money & Banking

Shocking amount Australia's richest people earn per hour

Three of Australia's richest people — Gina Rinehart, Andrew Forrest and Harry Triguboff — have more than doubled their wealth since 2020, according to the charity Oxfam. A report from the charity published on Monday, found that the fortune of Australia's richest people doubled at a staggering rate of $1.5 million per hour. The report also found that the total wealth of the country’s billionaires increased by $120 billion in that same period, which is over 70 per cent. Tech tycoons Elon Musk, Mark Zuckerberg and Jeff Bezos, are among the top five richest men worldwide, with the report finding that it would take them 476 years to spend all of their wealth if they spent $1.5 million daily. The global wealth of billionaires grew three times faster than the inflation rate, and they are $4.9 trillion richer today than they were in 2020, despite nearly five billion people worldwide growing poorer. According to the Australian Council of Social Services, one in eight adults are living in poverty, earning half of the median household income which ranges from $489 a week for a single adult to $1,027 for a couple with two kids. The report was released to raise concern over the growing global inequality, as they urge the federal government to reduce the wealth gap by scrapping the stage three tax cuts coming into effect on July 1. The tax cuts will lower marginal tax rates for high-earning Australians. Oxfam Australia chief executive Lyn Morgain has urged governments to step up. “We cannot accept a society that promotes the gross accumulation of wealth alongside widespread global poverty,” she said. “One of the best mechanisms we have to address this is progressive taxation. “The shame of our woeful global response to catastrophic disasters, displacement, famine and the climate crisis cannot be attributed to a scarcity of resources, it is distribution — and that’s a problem all governments, including the Australian government, need to tackle urgently.” Oxfam have also called for a wealth tax on the world's millionaires and billionaires that it claims could bring in $2.7 trillion each year. The report also called to cap CEO pay and break up private monopolies, which have gained significant power thanks to surging stock prices. Images: Getty

Money & Banking

The ethics of home ownership in an age of growing inequality

For many Americans today, <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2022/03/23/key-facts-about-housing-affordability-in-the-u-s/">homeownership is an unattainable dream</a>. In 2022, the average <a href="https://apnews.com/article/inflation-business-economy-prices-mortgages-b3d20020ecddf7a13bd62fb7b5ed7c0c">long-term U.S. mortgage rate rose to 7%</a> for the first time in more than two decades. The median sales price of existing homes <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-home-sales-fell-again-in-june-economists-estimate-11658309401">climbed to a record US$416,000</a> while demand for mortgages dropped to a <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2022/10/19/mortgage-demand-drops-to-a-25-year-low-as-interest-rates-climb.html">25-year low</a>. Experts forecast a turnaround in 2023, predicting a fall in <a href="https://www.forbes.com/advisor/mortgages/real-estate/housing-market-predictions/">home prices</a> and <a href="https://www.forbes.com/advisor/mortgages/mortgage-interest-rates-forecast/">mortgage rates</a>. With the housing market likely to cool modestly, the prospect of a gradual return to affordability may sound like music to buyers’ ears. But should people be purchasing property at all? My <a href="https://hi.psu.edu/scholars/desiree-lim/">research examines</a> the negative impact of property ownership. Despite the current state of the housing market, property is <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/qai/2022/08/30/housing-prices-are-dropping---yes-a-house-is-still-a-good-investment/">still considered a sound investment</a> – at least for the limited group who can afford it. However, property ownership can have serious consequences on others’ lives. <h2>Buying to make a profit?</h2> There is a difference between the two main categories of property buyers: those purchasing property as a primary home versus property for investment. Purchasing property as a primary home is considered more ethical than acquiring property for investment, as housing is considered a basic necessity. Property for investment, however, is owned for personal profit, often without the owner’s intending to ever live there. Investors may purchase homes that can be “fixed and flipped” and sell them at a profit or lease them to renters. As of 2019, renters headed around <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/08/02/as-national-eviction-ban-expires-a-look-at-who-rents-and-who-owns-in-the-u-s/">36% of the nation’s 122.8 million households</a>. Census data shows that <a href="https://www.census.gov/housing/hvs/files/currenthvspress.pdf">there are 48.2 million rental units</a> in the U.S., roughly 70% of which are owned by individual landlords. <h2>Landlordphobia?</h2> Landlords have often been <a href="https://jacobin.com/2021/07/abolish-landlords-cancel-rent-eviction-homelessness">criticized for being callous</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/apr/16/landlords-social-parasites-last-people-should-be-honouring-buy-to-let">greedy</a>. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-020-00502-1">COVID-19</a> exacerbated landlords’ poor reputations because the pandemic increased <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2021.2020866">renter payment difficulties</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306353">triggered widespread evictions</a> and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3613030">homelessness</a>. Some renters complained about uncaring landlords who were <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12555">accused of pressuring and threatening vulnerable tenants</a>. The federal and state governments stepped in to help people with such interventions as the <a href="https://nlihc.org/coronavirus-and-housing-homelessness/national-eviction-moratorium">federal eviction moratorium</a> and New York City’s <a href="https://www.nyc.gov/site/rentfreeze/index.page">rent freeze program</a>. Yet landlords also provide rental opportunities for those who prefer not to buy and for those who wish to buy their own home but cannot afford it. Furthermore, landlords can be seen as offering a <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/personal-finance/reasons-renting-a-house-is-better-than-buying-one-2019-8?r=US&IR=T">valuable service to those who are not seeking long-term occupancy</a>, such as university students who plan to leave upon graduation or temporary visitors to the U.S. The ethics of renting out property, then, seems to turn partly on whether renters need it for long-term basic shelter. Landlords are often blamed for the housing crisis. However, it is the responsibility of the government to ensure the <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-housing/homelessness-and-human-rights">right to long-term shelter</a>. Individual landlords may contribute toward a poor housing system, but they act within the confines of the system. Only governments have the power to change the system, through investment in affordable housing. <h2>The ethics of owning a home</h2> Homebuyers also have ethical obligations to others. Choosing to own property in a <a href="https://bayareaequityatlas.org/indicators/gentrification-risk#/">gentrifying neighborhood, or one considered at risk of gentrifying</a>, may contribute to the forced displacement of <a href="https://www.law.georgetown.edu/poverty-journal/blog/examining-the-negative-impacts-of-gentrification/">existing long-term residents</a>. The harms of having to leave one’s former neighborhood include the severing of community networks or enduring the strain of <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/17/business/economy/san-francisco-commute.html">extraordinarily long work commutes</a>. Additionally, persons of color <a href="http://www.wipsociology.org/2021/05/20/how-gentrification-reproduces-racial-inequality">are disproportionately affected by gentrification</a>, which may create new patterns of racial segregation. Given these consequences, aspiring homeowners should perhaps avoid purchasing homes in neighbourhoods with vulnerable residents. But, with housing unaffordability writ large, first-time buyers may be able to afford properties only in neighborhoods at risk of gentrification. <h2>Mitigating risk</h2> How can governments mitigate risks like racial segregation while also providing affordable housing? One example is Singapore’s system of <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-07-08/behind-the-design-of-singapore-s-low-cost-housing">affordable public housing</a>. To prevent segregation, Singapore introduced racial quotas in public housing that require minimum levels of occupancy of each of its main ethnic groups – Chinese, Malay, Indian, and others, which includes all other ethnicities. Though intrusive and <a href="https://www.cigionline.org/static/documents/documents/PB%20no.128web.pdf">imperfect in its execution</a>, the Singaporean approach shows that a more proactive approach to housing is possible. Landlords may have moral duties, but the government’s role in recognising and protecting the right to stable long-term housing must not be ignored. Image credits: Getty Images This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-ethics-of-home-ownership-in-an-age-of-growing-inequality-196775" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>.

Real Estate

Digital inequality: why can I enter your building – but your website shows me the door?

When people hear the term “accessibility” in the context of disability, most will see images of ramps, automatic doors, elevators, or tactile paving (textured ground which helps vision impaired people navigate public spaces). These are physical examples of inclusive practice that most people understand. You may even use these features yourself, for convenience, as you go about your day. However, such efforts to create an inclusive physical world aren’t being translated into designing the digital world. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463211/original/file-20220516-25-nl8hd8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463211/original/file-20220516-25-nl8hd8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463211/original/file-20220516-25-nl8hd8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463211/original/file-20220516-25-nl8hd8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463211/original/file-20220516-25-nl8hd8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463211/original/file-20220516-25-nl8hd8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463211/original/file-20220516-25-nl8hd8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463211/original/file-20220516-25-nl8hd8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="A large wheelchair sign is visible to the left of a wheelchair ramp." /></a><figcaption>New buildings are required to comply with a range of physical access requirements, which may include tactile paving (seen in yellow). Shutterstock</figcaption></figure> Accessibility fails Digital accessibility refers to the way people with a lived experience of disability interact with the cyber world. One example comes from an author of this article, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2019-07-13/dark-patterns-online-captcha-accessibility-disability-community/11301054" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Scott</a>, who is legally blind. Scott is unable to purchase football tickets online because the ticketing website uses an image-based “CAPTCHA” test. It’s a seemingly simple task, but fraught with challenges when considering accessibility issues. Despite Scott having an IT-related PhD, and two decades of digital accessibility experience in academic and commercial arenas, it falls on his teenage son to complete the online ticket purchase. Screen readers, high-contrast colour schemes and text magnifiers are all assistive technology tools that enable legally blind users to interact with websites. Unfortunately, they are useless if a website has not been designed with an inclusive approach. The other author of this article, Justin, uses a wheelchair for mobility and can’t even purchase wheelchair seating tickets over the web. He has to phone a special access number to do so. Both of these are examples of digital accessibility fails. And they’re more common than most people realise. We can clearly do better The term “disability” covers a spectrum of <a href="https://www.apsc.gov.au/working-aps/diversity-and-inclusion/disability/definition-disability" target="_blank" rel="noopener">physical and cognitive conditions</a>. It can can range from short-term conditions to lifelong ones. “Digital accessibility” applies to a broad range of users <a href="https://www.w3.org/WAI/people-use-web/abilities-barriers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">with varying abilities</a>. At last count, nearly <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/health/disability/disability-ageing-and-carers-australia-summary-findings/2018" target="_blank" rel="noopener">one in five Australians (17.7%)</a> lived with some form of disability. This figure increases significantly when you consider the physical and cognitive impacts of ageing. At the same time, Australians are becoming increasingly reliant on digital services. According to a <a href="https://www.pwc.com.au/consulting/connected-government/potential-of-digital-inclusion.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">2022 survey</a> by consulting firm PricewaterhouseCoopers, 45% of respondents in New South Wales and Victoria increased their use of digital channels during the COVID-19 pandemic. In contrast, research undertaken by <a href="https://www.infosys.com/australia/digital-accessibility-journey/executive-summary.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Infosys in December 2021</a> found only 3% of leading companies in Australia and New Zealand had effective digital accessibility processes. But have we improved? Areas that have shown accessibility improvement include <a href="https://blog.hootsuite.com/inclusive-design-social-media/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">social media platforms</a> such as YouTube, Facebook and Instagram, food ordering services such as <a href="https://www.afb.org/aw/20/4/16411" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Uber Eats</a>, and media platforms such as the ABC News app. Challenges still persist in <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/cognizant/2022/03/03/how-to-make-online-banking-disabled-people-friendly/?sh=21a3d5dda4a5" target="_blank" rel="noopener">online banking</a>, <a href="https://www.travelweekly.com/Travel-News/Travel-Agent-Issues/Websites-critiqued-on-accessibility-to-disabled-customers" target="_blank" rel="noopener">travel booking sites</a>, <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/sarahkim/2020/12/30/accessibility-of-online-shopping/?sh=66a9d883e49e" target="_blank" rel="noopener">shopping sites</a> and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10209-021-00792-5" target="_blank" rel="noopener">educational websites and content</a>. Data from the United States indicates lawsuits relating to accessibility <a href="https://www.essentialaccessibility.com/blog/web-accessibility-lawsuits">are on the rise</a>, with outcomes including financial penalties and requirements for business owners to remedy the accessibility of their website/s. In Australia, however, it’s often hard to obtain exact figures for the scale of accessibility complaints lodged with site owners. <a href="https://humanrights.gov.au/our-work/disability-rights/publications/overlooked-consumers-20-australian-population-disabilities" target="_blank" rel="noopener">This 1997 article</a> from the Australian Human Right Commission suggests the conversation hasn’t shifted much in 25 years. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463213/original/file-20220516-19-vjfht8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463213/original/file-20220516-19-vjfht8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463213/original/file-20220516-19-vjfht8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=257&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463213/original/file-20220516-19-vjfht8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=257&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463213/original/file-20220516-19-vjfht8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=257&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463213/original/file-20220516-19-vjfht8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=323&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463213/original/file-20220516-19-vjfht8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=323&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463213/original/file-20220516-19-vjfht8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=323&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="A rendered illustration of a disabled man in a wheelchair and woman with a hearing aid lifting weights." /></a><figcaption>It’s a human right to have fair and equal access to the web and all its services. Shutterstock</figcaption></figure> There are solutions at hand There’s a clear solution to the digital divide. The World Wide Web Consortium’s <a href="https://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG21/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Web Content Accessibility Guidelines</a> (WCAG) standard has been widely adopted across the globe. It’s universally available, and is a requirement for all Australian public-facing government websites. It guides website and app developers on how to use web languages (such as HTML and CSS) in ways that enable end users who rely on assistive technologies. There are no specialist technologies or techniques required to make websites or apps accessible. All that’s needed is an adherence to good practice. Unfortunately, WCAG is rarely treated as an <a href="https://www.rev.com/blog/web-accessibility-laws-australia-new-zealand" target="_blank" rel="noopener">enforceable standard</a>. All too often, adherence to WCAG requirements in Australia is reduced to a box-ticking exercise. Our academic work and experience liaising with a range of vendors has revealed that even where specific accessibility requirements are stated, many vendors will tick “yes” regardless of their knowledge of accessibility principles, or their ability to deliver against the standards. In cases where vendors do genuinely work towards WCAG compliance, they often rely on automated testing (via online tools), rather than human <a href="https://zoonou.com/resources/blog/why-automated-accessibility-testing-tools-are-not-enough/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">testing</a>. As a result, genuine accessibility and usability issues can go <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262352732_Benchmarking_web_accessibility_evaluation_tools_Measuring_the_harm_of_sole_reliance_on_automated_tests" target="_blank" rel="noopener">unreported</a>. While the coding of each element of a website might be WCAG compliant, the sum of all the parts may not be. In 2016, the Australian government adopted <a href="https://www.accessibility.org.au/policy-and-research/australian-policy/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">standard EN 301549</a> (a direct implementation of an existing European standard). It’s aimed at preventing inaccessible products (hardware, software, websites and services) entering the government’s digital ecosystem. Yet the new standard seems to have achieved little. Few, if any, references to it appear in academic literature or the public web. It seems to have met a similar fate to the government’s <a href="https://www.governmentnews.com.au/national-transition-strategy-web-accessibility-in-transition/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">National Transition Strategy</a> for digital accessibility, which quietly disappeared in 2015. The carrot, not the stick Accessibility advocates take different approaches to advancing the accessibility agenda with reticent organisations. Some instil the fear of legal action, often citing the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A1RbzjUBT1s" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Maguire v SOCOG case</a>, where the 2000 Olympic website was found to be inaccessible. In a more recent example, the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-11-05/blind-woman-launches-court-action-against-coles-over-its-website/5869874?nw=0&r=HtmlFragment" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Manage v Coles settlement</a> saw Coles agree to make improvements to their website’s accessibility after being sued by a legally blind woman. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463210/original/file-20220516-21-7tu89a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463210/original/file-20220516-21-7tu89a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463210/original/file-20220516-21-7tu89a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463210/original/file-20220516-21-7tu89a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463210/original/file-20220516-21-7tu89a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463210/original/file-20220516-21-7tu89a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463210/original/file-20220516-21-7tu89a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463210/original/file-20220516-21-7tu89a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="Screenshot of the top of Coles's 'accessibility' section on the company's website, with a red Coles logo on the top-left." /></a><figcaption>After getting sued by a legally blind customer in 2014, Coles made improvements to its website’s accessibility features. Screenshot/Coles</figcaption></figure> In the Coles case, the stick became the carrot; Coles went on to win a <a href="https://www.accessibility.org.au/award-winners-2019/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">national website accessibility award</a> after the original complainant nominated them following their remediation efforts. But while the financial impact of being sued might spur an organisation into action, it’s more likely to commit to genuine effort if this will generate a <a href="https://www.w3.org/WAI/business-case/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">positive return on investment</a>. Accessible by default We can attest to the common misconception that disability implies a need for help and support. Most people living with disability are seeking to live independently and with self-determination. To break the cycle of financial and social dependence frequently associated with the equity space, governments, corporations and educational institutions need to become accessible by default. The technologies and policies are all in place, ready to go. What is needed is leadership from government and non-government sectors to define digital accessibility as a right, and not a privilege. <img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182432/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/scott-hollier-1337594" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Scott Hollier</a>, Adjunct Senior Lecturer - Science and Mathematics, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/edith-cowan-university-720" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Edith Cowan University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/justin-brown-1344442" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Justin Brown</a>, Associate Dean (Teaching and Learning), School of Science, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/edith-cowan-university-720" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Edith Cowan University</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/digital-inequality-why-can-i-enter-your-building-but-your-website-shows-me-the-door-182432" target="_blank" rel="noopener">original article</a>. Image: Getty Images

Technology

The shocking truth about gender inequality in retirement - and how to fix it

On average, women retire with half the super of men. According to the Australian Securities and Investments Commission, women finish their careers with a meagre average of $230,907, compared to the $454, 211 of their male counterparts. When a woman’s ability to service debt and pay expenses is impaired, the outcomes are worse. Between 2011 and 2017 there was a 52 per cent increase in older women contacting homeless agencies, according to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. The reasons for this are no surprise. On average women earn less so contribute less to super. Women also take on less demanding careers to be more available to the family. And then there’s the career breaks. Women take time from work, often years, to care for children and the home and now parents and parents-in-law (the sandwich generation). Many return to work part-time. The impact of career breaks ripple throughout a woman’s life. Low financial literacy also contributes to gender inequality in retirement. An ASIC survey found 85 per cent of female respondents didn’t understand fundamental investment concepts. In my experience, when educated about financial concepts women make wise investment decisions. Sadly women don’t always seek out that knowledge. I’ve sat in many consultations where women started out disengaged, tuning out but after some drawings and discussion, become focused and confident. According to the NAB Financial Anxiety Index, women are much more anxious about finances than men. Given the circumstances it’s not surprising. But there are strategies to use, at various stages of life, to maximise financial security. Many of these involve being tactical with superannuation. Here some strategies worth looking into: <ol> <li> Maintain your extra super payments when the markets are low. Fear about turmoil in the financial markets leads many to withhold investments. But maintaining - or increasing - your voluntary super payments will earn you more in the long term. When the market comes out the other side of the crisis, you’ll hold more super at the higher value. </li> <li> Co-contribute to super. Regardless of the financial markets, co-contributing to super is a tax efficient investment. It is especially relevant if you are a single woman and can’t take advantage of having two incomes for one household. You just need to meet the criteria. </li> <li> Investigate superannuation splitting or spouse contributions. If a husband has a lot of super and the wife doesn’t it is possible to move some of his super to hers. I had clients in this situation and moving his super over made him eligible for the aged pension. With a spouse contribution he can reduce tax and build her super at the same time. </li> <li> Make carry-forward contributions into super. This is when you pay above the regular super contribution cap to make up for periods where you missed the cap. For example, say I stopped working to care for children for two years and didn’t pay anything into my super. Then I came into some money by working again, selling an asset or receiving an inheritance. I can pay my “extra” money into my super to make up for those lost years. I had a client who divorced and had to sell a property post-settlement. During the marriage she worked part-time and cared for children. We were able to pay $50,000 from the sale of the property into her super as a carry-forward payment. This way she avoided a significant capital gains tax bill. </li> <li> Diversify investments. As a general rule I always encourage investment diversity. Women are naturally more risk averse than men. Spreading money across hundreds, or thousands, of investments decreases risk. Knowing about investing in shares versus managed funds is key to this strategy.</li> </ol> There are concrete, seemingly insurmountable, reasons for gender inequality in retirement. The way to tackle these is with solid strategies. The earlier these start the better. Unfortunately, many women find out the reality of their situation too late. Whether single or not, becoming educated and involved in your financial plan is a step towards security. Helen Baker is a licenced Australian financial adviser and author of two books: One Your Own Two Feet – Steady Steps to Women’s Financial Independence and On Your Own Two Feet Divorce – Your Survive and Thrive Financial Guide. Proceeds from the books’ sales are donated to charities supporting disadvantaged women. Helen is among the 1% of financial planners who holds a master’s degree in the field. Find out more at <a href="http://www.onyourowntwofeet.com.au">www.onyourowntwofeet.com.au</a> Note this is general advice only and you should seek advice specific to your circumstances.

Retirement Income

The housing boom propelled inequality but a coronavirus housing bust will skyrocket it

A housing boom that lasted from the mid-1980s with only minor interruptions has <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-housing-boom-has-driven-rising-inequality-102581">added to rising income inequality</a> in Australia. Yet an impending housing market bust, triggered by the coronavirus pandemic and the resulting spike in unemployment, will not restore greater equality. On the contrary, recent history shows housing busts can <a href="http://web.stanford.edu/group/recessiontrends-dev/cgi-bin/web/sites/all/themes/barron/pdf/IncomeWealthDebt_fact_sheet.pdf">worsen inequality</a>. Those who benefit most from a boom are not those who pay the price when it busts. And those harmed by the boom often become even more vulnerable during the bust. Our analysis highlights the risks for people who bought their first home at the peak of the boom. We estimate 24,000 households are at very high risk because they took out large loans that might soon exceed their home value and also work in sectors with high job losses. Another 135,200 are at high risk and 121,000 are at moderate risk. Coronavirus has set up a housing bust Experts have long cited an upsurge in unemployment as the main threat to house price growth. This risk became reality with the coronavirus pandemic. Over the seven weeks from mid-March to early May, <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/6160.0.55.001Media%20Release1Week%20ending%202%20May%202020?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=6160.0.55.001&issue=Week%20ending%202%20May%202020&num=&view=">jobs fell by 7.3%</a>. Unless employment rapidly recovers, the housing market is facing a major downturn. In one worst-case scenario released by the Commonwealth Bank, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-05-13/coronavirus-commonwealth-bank-house-prices-economy-unemployment/12241338">house prices could fall by up to 32% </a> over the next two years. Recent first-time buyers are most vulnerable Households that can hold on to their homes and weather the storm until the market recovers are not substantially harmed. Established owners, who bought their homes before or early in the boom years, have enjoyed the largest increase in their home values, and the largest reductions in their debt. This puts them in a position of relative resilience to a housing market bust. In contrast, <a href="https://dra.american.edu/islandora/object/auislandora%3A70463/datastream/PDF/view">evidence from the 2008 housing crisis</a> in the United States shows which households are most at risk. These were households that bought their first home with no deposit, or a very low one, in the period leading up to the 2008 crash. The crash left these households “underwater”, trapped with an asset worth less than their mortgage debt. Many defaulted on their mortgages, fuelling the housing market’s downward spiral. The Australian housing market and financial institutions differ from those in the United States in 2008 in fundamental ways. Still, Australian households that bought their houses at the peak of the boom and have now lost their jobs in the coronavirus pandemic are facing the highest risk. These include 24,000 recent (2014-5 to 2017-18) first home buyers who borrowed over 80% of the value of their home and were employed in <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/6202.0">industries where jobs have now collapsed</a>. Another 135,200 recent first home buyers with high loan-to-valuation ratios are also at risk of going “underwater”, with homes worth less than their debt. Many of them are also in precarious employment, irrespective of the pandemic. (These figures do not include first home buyers in 2018-19, for which data are not yet available.) Renters’ relief could be short-lived Many private renters hope a housing downturn will translate into lower rents and perhaps give them a chance to buy their first home in a more affordable market. However, this is not always the case in a downturn. In the US from 2007 to 2009, despite declining house prices, <a href="https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/27011/1001550-Rental-Market-Stresses-Impacts-of-the-Great-Recession-on-Affordability-and-Multifamily-Lending.PDF">rental affordability stress has only increased</a>. In Australia, the sudden decline in international students and short-term rentals has <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/inner-city-rental-vacancy-rate-nearly-triples-amid-covid-19-student-exodus-20200523-p54vri.html">increased long-term rental vacancies in some areas</a>. <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/a-very-good-time-to-upgrade-tenants-bag-bargains-as-landlords-drop-rents-20200523-p54vp9.html">Reports suggest</a> rents are going down, especially at the upper end of some rental markets. However, in the longer run, the slowdown in housing construction will create supply shortages, leaving rental vacancies low and rents high. Many landlords, mostly “mum and dad” investors, have taken <a href="https://www.ahuri.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/16904/AHURI-Final_Report-296-Private-rental-in-transition-institutional-change-technology-and-innovation-in-Australia.pdf">large loans to finance their property investment</a>. They will need to keep rents high to hold on to their investment properties. Lower house prices will enable some households to become home owners for the first time, after being locked out of the market during the boom years. These households could benefit from a coronavirus housing bust if the market then recovers. Even so, their gains will do little to change the overall trend of rising inequality made worse by the housing downturn. We need to flatten out booms and busts Improved housing affordability is necessary to reduce social and economic inequality. A housing downturn will reduce house prices. But this downturn, when coupled with rising unemployment, will not deliver greater equality, especially if it’s followed by yet another boom. Australia has flattened the curve of COVID-19 infections. To be successful in reducing inequality, we need to flatten the curve of both booms and busts in the housing market cycle. And only a <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-lays-bare-5-big-housing-system-flaws-to-be-fixed-137162">thorough overhaul of national housing policy</a> will achieve that. Written by Ilan Wiesel, Liss Ralston and Wendy Stone. Republished with permission of <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-housing-boom-propelled-inequality-but-a-coronavirus-housing-bust-will-skyrocket-it-139039">The Conversation.</a>

Legal

Stimulus that retrofits housing can reduce energy bills and inequity too

A turn to austerity triggered by debt and deficit concerns of the kind seen in Europe after the global financial crisis could deliver us a <a href="https://www.kansascityfed.org/~/media/files/publicat/sympos/2017/auerbach-gorodnichenko-paper.pdf">slower</a> rather than a faster recovery in our debt to GDP ratio. Stay-at-home orders and the economic crisis have increased the burden of energy costs on lower-income Australians. Poor housing quality and unequal access to home energy efficiency are hurting our most vulnerable households. With the next stage of the national recovery program expected to include <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/jun/01/covid-19-stimulus-australian-government-targets-giant-construction-projects-and-home-renos-next">cash grants for home renovation</a>, now is the time to turn to housing retrofits that support health and well-being as well as boost jobs. Staying at home during the COVID-19 pandemic <a href="https://www.energynetworks.com.au/news/energy-insider/2020-energy-insider/commercial-down-v-residential-up-covid-19s-electricity-impact/">increases households’ energy consumption and costs</a>. As <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/apr/13/coalition-expects-coronavirus-to-send-australias-unemployment-soaring-to-10">one in ten Australians might lose their jobs</a>, the pandemic is adding to the energy hardship of people who were already struggling to pay their bills. Access to energy is essential <a href="https://theconversation.com/forget-heatwaves-our-cold-houses-are-much-more-likely-to-kill-us-83030">Cold housing is a known health risk</a>. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)62114-0">Lancet research</a> attributes about 7% of Australian deaths to cold weather. Warm housing <a href="https://www.ashrae.org/file%20library/about/position%20documents/pd_infectiousaerosols_2020.pdf">reduces the risk of airborne infections</a>, as well as providing comfort for working and studying. Laundry temperatures of 60-90°C are needed to <a href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/331497/WHO-2019-nCoV-IHR_Quarantine-2020.2-eng.pdf">limit the spread of the coronavirus</a>. But this conflicts with common energy-saving advice of washing clothes in cold water. Self-isolation also means heating more and not being able to close off unused rooms. Low-income households, renters and older people are <a href="https://www.acoss.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/ACOSS_ENERGY_EFFICIENCY_PAPER_FINAL.pdf">more likely to live in energy-inefficient dwellings</a>. In fact, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02673037.2019.1686130">most Australian housing has poor energy efficiency</a>. When people on low incomes live in such housing, they are doubly disadvantaged by the challenges of needing more energy and not being able to afford it. Households with older people, people with chronic illness and children are particularly susceptible to <a href="https://vcoss.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Persistent-Energy-Hardship-FINAL-Web-Single-Page.pdf">energy stress</a> and <a href="https://www.who.int/publications-detail/who-housing-and-health-guidelines">poor health outcomes</a>. Stop-gap measures The <a href="https://www.energynetworks.com.au/about/our-members/covid-19-information/">temporary stop to disconnections in some states</a> recognises that access to electricity and gas is a basic need and essential for health and well-being. This guaranteed energy, and a commitment by Australian Energy Council retailers <a href="https://www.energycouncil.com.au/news/assistance-available-for-energy-customers/">not to charge penalty fees for late payment</a>, will give affected households some relief. However, bill payment will only be postponed until the end of July. Much of the expensive heating period will still be ahead of us. And after that households will face the costs of cooling homes in summer. Energy debts are going to accumulate as a burden to low-income households into the future. Energy retailers might find it ethically difficult to resume disconnections, but customers will have to repay their debts. This will only be possible if their overall financial position improves and/or the cost of their energy decreases. Income support via <a href="https://services.dhhs.vic.gov.au/energy">energy concessions</a> can ease bill stress. However, taxpayer money may be better spent on providing sustained relief by improving the energy performance of homes. <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-social-housing-essential-infrastructure-how-we-think-about-it-does-matter-110777">Acknowledging housing as essential infrastructure</a> would enable economic and social progress. A lasting solution to energy poverty A long-term <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-06-01/coronavirus-scott-morrison-stimulus-construction-entertainment/12306818">stimulus package for retrofits</a> would be welcome. The focus should be on comprehensive retrofitting to reduce energy demand, thus helping households to repay debt. Comprehensive or “deep retrofits” combine simple activities such as draught proofing with insulating ceilings, floors and walls, upgrading heating and cooling appliances, and installing solar PV systems. Initial findings of our <a href="https://cur.org.au/project/housing-energy-efficiency-transitions/">HEET (Housing Energy Efficiency Transitions)</a> research show <a href="https://environmentvictoria.org.au/2020/04/03/how-to-save-energy-at-home-during-covid-19/">simple retrofit measures are cheap and easy to do</a>, and DIYing is popular. However, some opportunities are missed because householders are not aware of what can and should be done. A common example is failing to install underfloor insulation when restumping the house. Riding the <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/can-i-go-to-bunnings-diy-run-gets-tick-under-stay-at-home-rules-20200407-p54hwf.html">current wave of home improvements</a>, innovative retrofit initiatives may guide people in their DIY efforts. However, some training for proper DIY installation and the use of skilled tradespeople for technical installations is needed for safety and quality. Spread retrofitting benefits more widely <a href="https://publications.industry.gov.au/publications/climate-change/climate-change/government/renewable-energy-target-scheme.html#Small-scale_Renewable_Energy_Scheme">Federal</a> and <a href="https://www.energy.vic.gov.au/energy-efficiency/victorian-energy-upgrades">state</a> subsidy schemes already promote retrofitting. But <a href="https://journal-buildingscities.org/articles/10.5334/bc.13/">recent research</a> suggests low-income households and renters have benefited less. The <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/4130.0~2017-18~Media%20Release~More%20households%20renting%20as%20home%20ownership%20falls%20(Media%20Release)~10">one-in-three households that rent</a> their homes should not be missing out. Putting people at the centre of retrofitting programs will provide healthier homes and help tackle unemployment. This means providing retrofit assistance to those who need it most and training people in retrofit skills. Previously, the boom in new housing construction inhibited retrofitting. This might change following the COVID-19 crisis. A long-term retrofit program would be an opportunity to upskill builders and to retrain newly unemployed Australians, particularly the young people who have been <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-05-05/almost-one-million-australians-lose-jobs-due-to-coronavirus/12215494">most affected by job losses</a>. An expanded retrofit workforce is needed to reach the large number of inefficient homes. So-called “Green Deals” have already been proposed in <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/05/the-european-green-deal-must-be-at-the-heart-of-the-covid-19-recovery/">Europe</a>, the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/apr/20/climate-crisis-will-deepen-the-pandemic-a-green-stimulus-plan-can-tackle-both">US</a> and the <a href="https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/news/calls-for-retrofit-drive-to-spark-post-covid-green-economic-recovery/10047044.article">UK</a>. Green construction stimulus packages in Australia have <a href="https://www.anao.gov.au/work/performance-audit/home-insulation-program">successfully supported economic recovery before</a>. The aim should be to spawn a new industry of energy-efficient builders who will continue to contribute to the upgrade and upkeep of Australian housing. This could help cut greenhouse gas emissions, promote public health and improve our <a href="https://www.themandarin.com.au/132047-defence-commissioned-report-warned-of-australias-weaknesses-in-crises-year-before-covid-19-hit/">resilience to crises</a>. A nationwide stimulus package to provide healthier and more energy-efficient homes would help the most vulnerable and boost the economy. Written by Nicola Wiland, Bhavna Middha, Emma Baker, Ralph Horne and Trivess Moore. Republished with permission of <a href="https://theconversation.com/stimulus-that-retrofits-housing-can-reduce-energy-bills-and-inequity-too-138606">The Conversation.</a>

Art

Why rising inequality in Australia isn't about incomes

Compared to the rest of the world, income inequality is not particularly high in Australia, nor is it getting much worse. The real problem is housing inequality. Rising house prices have increased <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-the-bureau-of-statistics-didnt-highlight-our-continuing-upward-redistribution-of-wealth-121731">wealth inequality</a>. Rising housing costs have dramatically widened the gap between high and low disposable incomes. The gap between low-income and high-income households in Australia is <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/916-Commonwealth-Orange-Book-2019.pdf">close to the OECD average</a>. Income inequality – measured by the gini coefficient – <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/6523.0Main+Features12017-18?OpenDocument">has fallen</a> slightly over the past decade. The <a href="https://www.pc.gov.au/research/completed/rising-inequality/rising-inequality.pdf">Productivity Commission</a> says inequality has increased only slightly in the past three decades. Economists at the <a href="https://www.rba.gov.au/publications/rdp/2015/pdf/rdp2015-15.pdf">Reserve Bank</a> have come to similar conclusions. But inequality is growing once housing costs are factored in, with the poor being hurt the most. Incomes for the lowest 20% of households <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/901-Housing-affordability.pdf">increased</a> by about 27% between 2003-04 and 2015-16. But their incomes after housing costs increased by only about 16%. Low-income Australians are spending <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/901-Housing-affordability.pdf">much more</a> than they used to keep a roof over their heads. In contrast, incomes for the highest 20% of households increased by 36%, and their after-housing incomes by 33%. Leaving the young and poor behind Home ownership is increasingly benefiting the already well-off. Since 2003-04, increasing property values have contributed to the wealth of high-income households increasing by more than 50%. Wealth for low-income households has grown by less than 10% <hr /> <a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/289162/original/file-20190823-170922-dg3w9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/289162/original/file-20190823-170922-dg3w9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" alt="" /></a> <hr /> As we’ve <a href="https://theconversation.com/retiree-home-ownership-is-about-to-plummet-soon-little-more-than-half-will-own-where-they-live-115255">noted previously</a> rising housing costs have widened the gap between renters and home owners. As property prices have escalated, the higher deposit hurdle has seen rates of home ownership falling fast among the young and the poor. In 1981 more than 60% of those aged 25-34 had a mortgage; by 2016 it was 45%. The trends are similar among older groups. In the same period, home ownership among the poorest 20% of households has fallen from 63% to 23%. The big winners of the property boom have typically been older typically Australians <a href="https://theconversation.com/for-the-first-time-in-a-long-time-were-setting-up-a-generation-to-be-worse-off-than-the-one-before-it-121983">lucky enough</a> to buy a house before prices took off. Housing has thus compounded <a href="https://theconversation.com/three-charts-on-the-great-australian-wealth-gap-84515">inequality between the young and old</a>. <hr /> <iframe id="OX09s" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/OX09s/6/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none;" frameborder="0"></iframe> <hr /> This could lead to higher inequality in the future, because the children with wealthier parents can rely on the “bank of mum and dad” to break into the housing market, and then inherit their parents’ home as an investment property. Many low-income Australians <a href="https://theconversation.com/rethink-inheritances-these-days-they-no-longer-help-the-young-they-go-to-the-already-middle-aged-122029">won’t be so lucky</a>, which is why the share of Australians who own their homes is expected to <a href="https://theconversation.com/retiree-home-ownership-is-about-to-plummet-soon-little-more-than-half-will-own-where-they-live-115255">fall sharply</a> in the decades ahead. <hr /> <a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/268787/original/file-20190411-44785-55hftp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/268787/original/file-20190411-44785-55hftp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" alt="" /></a> <hr /> A clearer policy agenda Despite the clear evidence housing is key to inequality in Australia, housing policy is thin on the ground. In the dying days of the federal election campaign, the Coalition announced a <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-brutal-truth-on-housing-someone-has-to-lose-in-order-for-first-homebuyers-to-win-117010">plan</a> to help those struggling to save the 20% deposit normally required to buy a home. The federal government has also made it easier for people to access their <a href="https://www.ato.gov.au/individuals/super/withdrawing-and-using-your-super/first-home-super-saver-scheme/">super</a> to pay the deposit. These policies might be popular but do little to improve housing affordability for low-income earners; they might even <a href="https://insidestory.org.au/another-lost-opportunity-for-housing-affordability/">do more harm than good</a>. Labor, meanwhile, ran with a <a href="https://theconversation.com/shortens-subsidy-plan-to-boost-affordable-housing-108881">proposal</a> during the last election campaign to build 250,000 new affordable housing dwellings, using a mechanism similar to the earlier National Rental Affordability Scheme (NRAS). On our <a href="https://blog.grattan.edu.au/2019/09/learning-from-past-mistakes-lessons-from-the-national-rental-affordability-scheme/">analysis</a>, though, the original NRAS was poor value for money, and did not target those most in need. Addressing inequality requires a clearer view on what to do about rising housing costs. The priority should be to <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/commonwealth-orange-book-2019/">boost Rent Assistance</a> by 40% – an extra A$1,410 a year for singles and A$1,330 for couples – and benchmark it to rents paid by low-income renters. The federal government should also give <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/commonwealth-orange-book-2019/">more funding</a> to the states for social housing carefully targeted to people at serious risk of homelessness. Emulating the Rudd-era <a href="http://www.nwhn.net.au/admin/file/content101/c6/social_housing_initiative_review.pdf">Social Housing Initiative</a>, which resulted in 20,000 new social housing units being built and thousands more refurbished at a cost of A$5.6 billion, would provide a much-needed boost to housing construction when the pipeline is <a href="https://www.rba.gov.au/publications/smp/2019/may/pdf/statement-on-monetary-policy-2019-05.pdf">drying up</a>. Supply-side economics But redistribution alone won’t be enough. Housing is a A$6.6 trillion market. Subsidies can only paper over market failures arising from overly strict zoning rules that <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/housing-affordability-re-imagining-the-australian-dream/">prevent greater density</a> in our major cities. Housing inequality will really only fall if housing costs fall. That requires building more houses. We <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/housing-affordability-re-imagining-the-australian-dream/">estimate</a> building an extra 50,000 homes a year for the next decade would make house prices and rents 10% to 20% lower than they would be otherwise. This is primarily a challenge for state governments. They govern the local councils that set most planning rules and assess most development applications. But the federal government can and should <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/916-Commonwealth-Orange-Book-2019.pdf">encourage</a> the states to boost housing supply by reforming land-use planning and zoning laws. If Scott Morrison really believes in “<a href="https://www.theaustralian.com.au/nation/politics/scott-morrison-pays-tribute-to-grandmother-in-mardigras-ritual/news-story/5af22d241145aae979e8d694d2f7dbe7">a fair go for Australians</a>”, he needs to tackle the housing crisis.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important; text-shadow: none !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/119872/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> Written by Brendan Coates, Program Director, Household Finances, Grattan Institute and Carmela Chivers, Associate, Grattan Institute. Republished with permission of <a rel="noopener" href="https://theconversation.com/rising-inequality-in-australia-isnt-about-incomes-its-almost-all-about-housing-119872" target="_blank">The Conversation</a>.

Retirement Income

Research reveals the hidden “tax” on Aussie staples

A hidden “tax” has affected 50 per cent of Aussie shoppers, as they get charged more for everyday staples for no good reason. A new research by AMP found that common products sold at Australian supermarkets and retailers are priced at a higher cost when they are targeted at women. Women were found to pay an average of 29 per cent more than men for razors, 16 per cent more for body wash and 12 per cent more for underwear. There was also an 11 per cent gender price gap between men’s and women’s shampoo, a nine per cent difference in multivitamins and a five per cent disparity in jeans. AMP financial adviser Di Charman said while the price differences might seem negligible at a glance, they could add up over a lifetime and affect women’s financial health in the long run. “Some people might disregard the price difference between [men and women’s] products because it’s only a couple of dollars, but when you look at the differences in percentages, some are quite alarming,” she told <a href="https://www.news.com.au/finance/business/retail/research-reveals-blatant-gender-tax-added-to-aussie-staples/news-story/8bd48e80c32b2df80cdc72fdd068ba09">news.com.au</a>. “When you use these items every day over a lifetime, it adds up, so don’t let your hard-earned dollars out of your hands easily.” When it comes to dealing with gender tax, Charman advised speaking up to the retailers and manufacturers. “Sometimes you’ve got to ask, ‘holy smoke, why is this happening?’” she said. “As women, we need to be a bit more vocal and perhaps give more feedback to organisations we’re purchasing from — all consumers should give feedback, because it’s the only way things change.” <blockquote class="twitter-tweet" data-lang="en"> Hi <a href="https://twitter.com/BigW_Australia?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@BigW_Australia</a> maybe you can answer my Q? <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/pinktax?src=hash&ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#pinktax</a> <a href="https://t.co/sM0XuPIcq8">pic.twitter.com/sM0XuPIcq8</a> — Candy J (@LiveLrnExplore) <a href="https://twitter.com/LiveLrnExplore/status/841190024250982400?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">March 13, 2017</a></blockquote> <blockquote class="twitter-tweet" data-lang="en"> Join the conversation about Australia's <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/pinktax?src=hash&ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#pinktax</a> via this tumblr launched by <a href="https://twitter.com/GetUp?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@GetUp</a>:<a href="http://t.co/D1qe2E0I8T">http://t.co/D1qe2E0I8T</a> <a href="http://t.co/E5Bmv9e8AZ">pic.twitter.com/E5Bmv9e8AZ</a> — Daily Life (@DailyLifeAu) <a href="https://twitter.com/DailyLifeAu/status/591016385859309568?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">April 22, 2015</a></blockquote> <blockquote class="twitter-tweet" data-lang="en"> <a href="https://twitter.com/havaianas?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@havaianas</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/havaianas_au?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@havaianas_au</a> still not quite sure why women have to pay more for your flip flops.... 🤔?<a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/genderpricing?src=hash&ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#genderpricing</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/everydaysexism?src=hash&ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#everydaysexism</a> <a href="https://t.co/JBDmd8nauJ">pic.twitter.com/JBDmd8nauJ</a> — Dr Holly Jenkins (@DrHollyJJenkins) <a href="https://twitter.com/DrHollyJJenkins/status/1078209054785163264?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">December 27, 2018</a></blockquote> The pink tax has been a longstanding issue in Australia and throughout the world, with lobby groups such as GetUp! campaigning to see the gap abolished. According to the <a href="https://www.wgea.gov.au/topics/gender-pay-gap">latest statistics</a> from Workplace Gender Equality Agency, Australian women still earn 14.1 per cent or $239.80 less than men on average. “Women in Australia already earn … less than men, and when you factor in the gender price gap, we see that women are being paid less at work, and then paying more at the shops,” said GetUp! in its <a href="https://www.getup.org.au/campaigns/women-s-rights/gender-price-gap/gender-price-gap">Gender Price Gap statement</a>. “It’s time we called out this practice for what it is: making women literally pay for gender stereotypes.” The campaign to remove extra charges from women’s products has previously achieved success with the abolition of tampon tax last year. The <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-10-03/tampon-tax-to-go-states-and-territories-agree-to-remove-gst/10332490">ABC</a> reported that after 18 years of campaign, all states and territories agreed to scrap the 10 per cent GST from tampons and pads in January this year.

Retirement Income

Why we need to address gender inequality to reduce violence against women

Dr Peter Streker is a community psychologist who has worked in the field of family violence for more than 20 years with thousands of violent and abusive men. He works with governments, community organisations, businesses, schools and sports clubs to implement strategies that promote gender equity and prevent violence against women. <a href="http://www.ourwatch.org.au/understanding-violence/facts-and-figures" target="_blank">One Australian woman is killed almost every week </a>by a partner or former partner. One in three women have experienced physical violence, one in five subjected to sexual violence and eight out of ten harassed on the street. The World Health Organisation recognises violence against women – physical, sexual or psychological – as a major public health problem and a <a href="http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs239/en/" target="_blank">violation of women’s human rights</a>. Many theories have been put forward to explain why men, in Australia and around the world, commit violent acts against women. But contrary to popular belief, research suggests drugs and alcohol, mental illness, poor anger management skills or violent upbringings aren’t the major factors. While there is no single cause, global research shows that gender inequality is one of the strongest predictors of high rates of male violence against women. Cultural attitudes The risk of violence against women is generally heightened in cultures that reinforce male superiority and cultural attitudes that excuse, justify or promote violence. “Most men are not violent at home, but those who are use violence and intimidation to assert power and control over women and children in their homes,” says community psychologist Dr Peter Streker. “At a societal level, the condoning of violence against women is one of the strongest drivers of violence against women as it helps excuse perpetrators from their actions. Research has also shown that high rates of violence exist in cultures where men control most of the decision making in powerful places such as politics and corporate boards, and women’s independence is limited. This is also a typical pattern we see in homes where violence against women occurs.” “We also often see more violence against women when rigid, traditional gender roles and stereotypes are upheld, such as the belief that men should be competitive and dominant and women should be cooperative and nurturing. The other factor that stands out involves men who are part of aggressive social groups that are disrespectful towards women.” Common misunderstandings If the contribution of gender inequality to violence towards women is news to you, it’s no wonder, because Dr Streker says we often overestimate the impact of drugs and alcohol, mental illness, poor anger management skills and violent upbringings. “Drugs and alcohol certainly play a role in violence against women, but typically when the gender-based drivers of male domination and control are also present,” he says. “We have found that many men are violent while sober and many others don’t become violent when intoxicated. The combination with the other drivers is the key. “Some mental health conditions may add risk, but they do not explain the broad rates of violence across the population. Some men claim that they have no control over their anger at home, although this problem seems to disappear in front of other men in positions of authority such as their CEOs or police officers. Many of these men also go to great lengths to cover up their abusive behaviour and make sure no one else knows about it. “And if a violent upbringing was the cause of family violence, we would also expect to see similar rates of family violence perpetrated by women who were violated as girls, which we don’t. The gendered patterns are clear.” Long-term change Dr Streker says long-term cultural change that promotes gender equality – at home, in the workplace and in our major institutions – will help us to reduce male violence against women. An important place to start is to challenge gender stereotypes about who goes to work and who stays home to care for the kids. <a href="https://aifs.gov.au/publications/parents-working-out-work" target="_blank">At the moment 36 per cent of Australian mums work part-time, compared with 9.5 per cent of men</a>. “We’ve progressed a long way from the 1970s but there’s still very strong pressures on men and women to conform to old gender norms,” says Dr Streker. “For example, if a couple has a child there’s often an implicit expectation that the woman will sacrifice her career development for the family, even if they have the same education and experience in the workforce.” He says this decision should always be the couple’s choice, but sharing these responsibilities more equally will provide women with more opportunities for job promotions and leadership positions, and the financial ability to leave violent partners. It will also provide men with more opportunities to spend extra time with their children. “Men currently dominate positions of power in politics, business and sport,” says Dr Streker. “We even see this in female-dominated industries, such as education, where 65 per cent of teaching staff are women, but 65 per cent of principals are men.” Interestingly, <a href="http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2015/economies/#economy=AUS" target="_blank">Australia currently ranks 36 out of 145 countries on the Global Gender Gap index</a>, and our rank has declined in recent years because of low numbers of women in parliament and other senior positions. Dr Streker says disrespectful comments dressed up as jokes also need to be challenged. “People may think that sexist jokes, demeaning comments and threats of violence are harmless, but they contribute to an aggressive culture that disrespects women and girls and reinforces male superiority,” he says. “We need to build on the courageous, pioneering work of many women over many decades and continue to develop a culture that unambiguously rejects violence against women, promotes gender equality in public and private life, and helps more men learn to deal with difficult problems without resorting to a gun or his fists.” <img width="150" height="33" src="https://oversixtydev.blob.core.windows.net/media/7264648/white-ribbon-day-psychlopaedialogo_150x33.jpg" alt="White Ribbon Day Psychlopaedialogo" style="float: right;"/> Written by Dr Peter Streker. Republished with permission of <a href="https://psychlopaedia.org/" target="_blank">Psychlopaedia.org</a>.

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The ethics of home ownership in an age of growing inequality

Digital inequality: why can I enter your building – but your website shows me the door?

The shocking truth about gender inequality in retirement - and how to fix it

The housing boom propelled inequality but a coronavirus housing bust will skyrocket it

Stimulus that retrofits housing can reduce energy bills and inequity too

Why rising inequality in Australia isn't about incomes

Research reveals the hidden “tax” on Aussie staples

Why we need to address gender inequality to reduce violence against women

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